EVERY BOY 
HIS OWN MECHANIC 

BERNARD E. JONES 



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PRKSENTKI) liV 



EVERY BOY HIS 
OWN MECHANIC 



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USING THE HACK SAW 

llVork is several inches too high for comprt and efficiency] 



EVERY BOY HIS 
OWN MECHANIC 



BY 

BERNARD E. JONES 

I I 

Editor of "Work" 
ASSISTED BY A 

NUMBER OF EXPERTS 



Illustrated by Sixteen Full-page Plates in Half- 
tone and Four Hundred Diagrams in the Text 



New York 

Funk & Wagnalls Company 






am 

JUL i I92S 



To My Own Boys, 
Lewis and Anthony 



PREFACE 

In this book I have tried to tell boys how to do some 
of the things I have found them always eager to attempt. 
I have explained and illustrated for them the everyday 
tools of the worker in wood and metals, and shown how 
to use them. I have described a variety of handiwork 
and useful jobs about the house, and have introduced 
my readers to a number of mechanical hobbies, such as 
model electric lighting, wood and metal turning, model 
locomotive and railway work, fretwork, boat building, 
toy making, telephone construction and erection, etc., etc. 
I may say that in almost every chapter I have sought 
not only to present some interesting work or hobby, but 
to show my boy readers how to make themselves useful 
in their homes. 

Much of the information in this book is " technical," 
but at the same time it is simple. In other words, I 
have sought to explain in straightforward sentences 
the " why and wherefore " of the methods and processes 
described, believing that the need of the future is for 
boys and men who understand what they are doing, and 
why they do it. I have done my best to make every 
statement easy of comprehension, and to use simple 
language devoid of unexplained scientific or technical 
terms. 

vii 



Preface 

It is a pleasure to make a few acknowledgments of 
help freely rendered me by personal friends. Mr. Henry 
Greenly, the well-known model engineer, has contributed 
two chapters on his own subject. Mr. A. Mill ward, a 
highly skilled amateur mechanic, has explained how to 
do simple turning in wood and metal. Mr. B. Clements- 
Henry, electrician, craftsman, author (and ever so many 
other things besides), has been good enough to go to the 
trouble of designing an especially simple form of house 
telephone, and of describing it in the very closest detail. 
Then there are Mr. R. S, Bowers, who has drawn a number 
of the best illustrations in the book, and Mr. J. G. Ross 
— a technical chemist — who has kindly revised the chapter 
on silvering glass. And I certainly must not forget to 
thank my boy friend Ronald Gaze, and my son, Lewis 
R. Jones, both of whom took pains in posing for a number 
of the photographic plates. Still further acknowledg- 
ments are made in certain of the chapters. 

May my young readers find delight in putting into 
practice the information which I give them in the pages 
of this book. 

B. E. J. 



CONTENTS 



How TO Use Woodworking Tools 

Making and Using Various Cements 

Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 

The Hektograph Copier : How To Make and Use It 

Inserting a Window Pane 

Various Workshop Metals : How to Identify and 
Work Them ..... 

Making Picture Frames .... 

How to Use Metalworking Tools 

Glue : How to Prepare and Use It 

Electric Batteries and How to Make Them 

« 
Soldering ..... 

Making Simple Wooden Toys . 

Painting, Enamelling, and Staining 

Fretwork in Wood . 

Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

Gilding with Gold Leaf and Gold Paint 

Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 

Building a Cardboard Model L. & 
Locomotive 

Turning Wood in the Lathe 
How TO Mount Pictures . 
Some Easy Things to Make in Wood 

ix 



S.W.R. Express 



1 
35 
41 

65 
70 

74 
82 
94 
105 
111 
125 
138 
153 
161 
172 
190 
194 

204 
219 
231 
237 



Contents 



Etching a Name on Metal 
Varnishing and Polishing 
Making Hutches .... 
Waterproofing Tents, Ground Sheets and 
Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 
Turning Metal in the Lathe . 
Fretwork in Metal and Ivory 
Building a Dog Kennel 
Laying the Rails for a Model Railway 
Building a 10-ft. Flat-bottomed Rowing 
A Model Aeroplane that Flies 
Nails and Screws .... 
Some Useful Jobs about the House 
A Word on Wood .... 
A Practical Home-made Telephone . 
Index 



PAGE 

. 245 

. 250 

. 255 

Garments 268 

. 270 

. 281 

. 285 

. 289 

. 298 

Boat . 307 

. 319 

. 328 

. 330 

. 340 

. 343 

. 367 



LIST OF PLATES 



Using the Hack Saw 



rCHES 



Rip-sawing 

Tool Sharpening 

Planing .... 

Using Screwdrivers . 

Wiring Electric Lamps and S\v: 

Picture Framing 

Filing at the Vice 

Soldering .... 

Easy Toy Making 

Bicycle Cleaning and Adjusting 

Model Locomotive, Station and Signals 

Some Easy Things to Make in Wood 

Dovetailing ..... 

Model Railways .... 

Building Model Aeroplanes 



Frontispiece^ 

FACING PAGE 

8^* 



16*^ 

80^ 
104«^ 
128*^ 
144»^ 

208^^ 
240^ 
272^ 
304'' 
320 -' 



EVERY BOY HIS OWN 
MECHANIC 



HOW TO USE WOODWORKING TOOLS 

The Bench. — The average boy mechanic is in my 
mind as I write. He will be interested in a variety of 
mechanical work, of which wood-working will be just 
one branch, and possibly he may have no convenience for 
a bench of his own, in which case perhaps he can use 
another's or can 
adapt a strong 
table to his pur- 
pose. Table 
benches are use- 
ful for light work, 
particularly so 
if there are side 
and cross rails 
near the floor, as 




Fig. 



1. — Kitchen Table fitted up as Wood- 
working Bench 



these add tremendously to the rigidity of the construction. 
The average kitchen table is not rigid enough to withstand 
the stresses set up by planing, but if it is used in the 
corner of a room or against a wall, and the planing is 
always done towards the wall, the table may be made 
to serve very well. 

B I 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



41HSiaB] 



Fig. 2.— Iron Bench 
Screw 




Its chief lack will very quickly be discovered. There 
is no vice in which to hold pieces of wood for chiselling, 
tenon-sawing, etc., and the worker will not long be satisfied 

without one. Fortunately, a vice 
can be added to a kitchen table 
at small expense {see Fig. 1). 
Nearly every tool catalogue shows 
both wood and iron bench screws, 
both of them fairly cheap, and the iron ones {see Fig. 2) 
can be rapidly converted into efficient vices. Should the 
table-top overlap the side rail, as it almost certainly will, 
first screw on a piece of wood as wide as the table rail, of 
any suitable length, say from 6 in. to 12 in., and of such 
a thickness that its outer face comes flush with the edge 
of the table-top. If one piece of wood is not thick enough, 
use two or three, and screw all together. For the cheek 
of the vice you will need a piece of good hard stuff of 
any convenient width, say, 6 in. wide and roughly 18 in. 
long. The iron screw will vary in diameter, about eight 
sizes between ye ^^• 
and If in. inclusive 
being obtainable. 
You will need a 
centrebit that will 
cut a hole through 
which the screw 
will easily pass. 
With this bit cut a ^^^- ^--^^"'^^ ""''' "'^ ^^^^^'° "^'"^ 
hole in the vice cheek, and right through the thickened 
rail of the table. On the screw is a nut which must be 
removed and screwed on the back of the rail in such a 

2 




How to Use Woodworking Tools 



position that the bench screw engages with it freely. 
There is also a collar which in the simplest form of con- 
struction is split {see Fig. 2). In attaching the screw to 
the vice cheek, it is pushed in as far as it will go, the split 
collar placed in position so as to engage in a recess cut 
in the screw, and the collar attached to the cheek with 
half a dozen small screws. On turning the screw by 
means of the lever handle, the vice cheek is moved to 
and fro, but owing to its length it will not move per- 
fectly parallel with the table unless a "runner" is fitted 
to it. Now, B in Fig. 1 shows such a runner, and a is 
the vice cheek, and Fig. 3 is 
another view of it. The runner 
may be of 1 in. stuff by 1| in. 
deep, or any size similar, and 
1 foot or more in length, tenoned 
into the end of the vice cheek, 
as shown in Fig. 4, it being Fig. 4.-Run^cnoned into 
made a tight fit, and screwed ^**'® Check 

from the front as indicated in the other views. A 
long, narrow box in which the runner slides easily is 
next made, but it is not fitted into position until 
careful testing has shown what its exact position 
should be. The presence of the runner, which should 
fit its box well, but not tightly, will ensure that the vice 
cheek is kept parallel with the side of the table when the 
screw handle is worked. Full details of the arrangement, 
which you can easily follow, are given in Fig. 5. 

Two details of the illustrations need a word of comment. 
In Fig. 3 is shown a planing board which protects the 
surface of the table, and in which two little mortises have 

3 




Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

been cut. Two pieces of wood (shown suspended over 
the holes) fit the holes tightly and can be slightly raised 
when required to form stops against which the work will 
be held for planing. The other detail is the little L-iron 
pieces screwed to the feet of the table legs in Fig. 1, and 



PACT Of TA^LL-TOP ■ ^ INNER VICt-CHLDC •• fA.CE. 


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TOP EDGE MUST EL ^ 
fLUfHWnHTi9P0fTABLL 




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Fig. 5.— Constructional Details of Kitchen -Table Bench 



also to the floor to render the table immovable when 
doing heavy work such as planing. 

Of course, if you can afford to buy just the bench you 
want, there are many excellent designs available. Those 
with drawers or cupboards {see Fig. 6) are first-rate, and 
full details of construction are shown on the opposite page. 
The great advantage of a strongly-built "portable" bench 
is that the whole construction is held rigidly by means of 

4 



4'6"- 






1'6'. 






A:^ 



3>i 



iV 



I 

L^ 2isq 





Top of Leg 

Dovetailed 

to Rail 



Front and End Elevations of Bench 




Sketch of Complete Bench as in use 





BENCH TOP 
SCREW 



Section showing how Vice 
is fitted 



Arrangement of Drawer 
Runners, etc. 



Fig. 6. — Sketch and Working Drawings of Bench with Shelf 
and Tool Drawers 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

wedges which can be easily knocked out when it is re- 
quired to take the bench to pieces for removal. The pin- 
board on the front of some benches is for the purpose 
of supporting long boards, one end of which will be held 
in the vice and the other supported on a wooden peg 
pushed into one of the holes at a suitable height. 

Tools. — Sawing, planing and chiselling make up the 
bulk of woodworking, and I advise you to buy just the 
few tools that are essential and not to bother your head 
or empty your pocket by obtaining a fitted tool chest. 
Most of the tool boxes I have seen contain a number of 
tools that are seldom required, and only the best of these 
fitted boxes contain tools of really high quality. You can 
do a lot of things with just a few simple tools of average 
size and of good quality, kept in thorough order, and used 
with as much care and skill as you can muster. I am not 
going to bother you with a long list of the tools required 
(I show two groups of them in Figs. 7 and 7a), except 
to say that you will need a saw, a plane, two or three 
chisels, and the everyday tools that most households 
possess, such as a hammer, bradawl, gimlet, screwdriver, 
2-ft. rule, etc. One or two other tools that would be 
extremely useful will be referred to as the occasion for 
their employment arises. The number of tools required 
depends so much upon what you want to make and upon 
the size and condition of the wood which you can get for 
the purpose. For example, if you can obtain at a local 
sawmill or carpenter's shop wood of any convenient 
length, width, and thickness accurately cut and properly 
planed, there is no need to buy a hand saw or a jack 
plane, extremely useful though those tools are, and you 

6 





Haad Saw 



Tenon Saw 




Wooden Spokeshave 



Brace 



Fig. 7. — A group of fourteen of the Woodworker's chief Tools 
and Appliances 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

can keep the money by you until you take in hand an 
ambitious job where the tools mentioned cannot easily 
be dispensed with. Under such conditions as I have 
named a good tenon saw would answer most purposes, 
but don't get a cheap one, and don't buy one at a 
*' clearance sale " unless you get with it a guarantee 
that it is by a good maker. 

The hand saw is used for severing a board, and may 
be used either with or across the grain, for which reason 
it consists of a single piece of fine steel slightly tapered 
in thickness towards the back so that it works sweetly 
in the cut or kerf. The tenon saw is used chiefly in shaping 
work in the making of joints and for other accurate 
cutting of a finer and slighter nature than that which is 
generally accomplished with the hand saw. It has a 
thinner blade than the last mentioned, and very much 
finer teeth, and to prevent its twisting or buckling when 
in use it is strengthened with a back of brass or iron, as 
shown in Fig. 7. Some tenon saws have a hinged back, 
which can be pushed out of the way to allow of the saw 
being used as a hand saw, but I have not yet seen a tool 
of fine quality made in this way. A small brass-backed 
dovetail saw will be found useful. Saws for cutting small 
curves are the turn saw, compass saw, and keyhole saw. 

How to Use a Saw. — Let our first attempt at wood- 
working be the sawing of a piece of board accurately to 
a line. The saw is to be started and maintained at work 
so as to make a neat cut at right angles to the face of the 
timber. Plenty of boys wonder why they cannot saw off 
a piece of wood with a perfectly straight and square edge. 
They get an edge which alters in its angle at every half 

8 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



inch, and in trying to correct it they produce another 
edge just as bad and run the risk of making the work too 
short for the purpose intended. The reason is that they 



c:3i 



Marking Awl and Knife 



Twist Bit 




Centrebit 



Sliding Bevel 



Twist Gimlet 



Fig. 7A. — Another group of fourteen of the Woodworker's chief 
Tools and Appliances 

do not adopt the proper position. One of the photo- 
graphic plates in this book shows the position for ensuring 
that the saw is cutting square to the face of the work. 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



Look at it closely, and you will discover the secret of 
accurate cutting. You will note that the saw, the fore- 
arm, and the right eye are in one vertical plane, and if 
you accustom yourself to working in this position you 
will soon get into the habit of square cutting. Every 
now and then you can test the accuracy by means of a 

try-square (Fig. 8). 

The saw must be 
held as illustrated in 
the photograph from 
the very first cut to the 
last. At starting it is 
guided to the spot re- 
quired by the thumb- 
nail of the left hand 
(Fig. 9), and the first 
stroke is a short up- 
stroke which just 
abrades the edge of 
the work and makes 
an easy path for the 
down stroke, which is 
the real cutting stroke. 
On the return upstroke 
take all pressure off the saw, as the teeth are so 
shaped that each one removes a little scraping when 
the saw is thrust forward, but has only a slight 
bruising action when drawn backwards in the cut. 
The carpenter who presses the saw into the work on 
the back stroke soon dulls his tool. Even on the down- 
stroke do not press too heavily, and do not grip the 

ID 




Fig. 8. 



-Testing Accuracy of Sawing by 
means of Try-square 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



handle too tightly or the vibration will soon cramp 
the fingers and tire the muscles of the arm. 

To keep the saw to the line, the handle is very slightly 
lowered occasionally, the eye observing that it is following 
the path intended. But in taking pains to keep to the 
line do not " lay " the saw too much, as you will then be 
in effect increasing the thickness of the stuff and making 
the job a harder one. But, 
as I have said, unless you 
lay the saw to some ex- 
tent, you cannot be sure 
of following the line. 

In rip-sawing — cutting 
with the grain — you will 
need to support the work 
at both ends, whilst for 
cutting across the grain, 
it is usual for part of the 
plank to overhang the 
box or sawing stool. In 
both kinds of sawing the 
parts requiring the most 
care are at the begin- 
ning and the end of the 

cut, the first because accuracy and neatness depend 
upon it, and the second because without careful work it 
is easy to break off the partly-severed piece and leave 
an ugly splinter. Thus you need to go slowly and 
gently when approaching the end of the cut, and you 
or a helper must support the work until the saw has com- 
pleted the cut. The method of starting the cut is the same 

II 




Fig. 9.— Starting a Saw Cut 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



for both rip-sawing and cross-cutting. In your early 
experiments, and especially if the saw is not in good 
condition, the tool may become nipped when well into 
the wood. This is because you have run the saw slightly 
out of the straight, with a consequent tendency to bend 
it in its width. You can overcome the trouble, as a rule, 
by wedging open the cut with a chisel, or by starting the 
cut at the other end of the board. 





Fig. 11.— Bench Hook 



Fig. 10. — Cross Halving 



Using a Tenon Saw. — Tenon - sawing needs to be 
much more accurately done than hand-sawing. You use 
the tenon saw in preparing the ends of two pieces of wood 
to be joined together, and any inaccuracy will probably 
betray itself in the finished job. But with a little care 
and using a good sharp saw you will rapidly overcome 
any initial difficulty, and will soon learn to make a 
straight square cut. It is held and started in the same 
way, but otherwise is used differently, as it is frequently 
necessary to cut a kerf the whole width of the board, and 
the " laying " of the saw condemned in the case of the 
hand saw is now unavoidable. In tenon-sawing it is 

12 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 

often necessary to grip the work in the bench screw, and 
alter its position from time to time so that all saw cuts 
can be made in the vertical plane. 

When making a halved joint {see Fig. 10) the tenon 
saw is the chief tool used, and the work is generally held, 
not in the vice, but in a simple device called a bench 
hook (Fig. 11), which is used as illustrated in Fig. 12. 
This bench 
hook is a piece 
of wood of any 
suitable dimen- 
sions with nar- 
rower pieces 
screwed across 
its ends, one 
on one face and 
one on the 
other. The left 
hand holds it 
and the work 
which it sup- 
ports firmly on 
the bench, the 




Fig. 12. — Sawing Halved Joint in Bench Hook 



underneath strip which abuts against the edge of the 
bench top preventing it from slipping. 

However well a joint may be set out on the work, it is 
quite easy to spoil it in cutting by inattention to one im- 
portant point. It must always be remembered that a 
saw wastes an amount of wood of a width equivalent to 
the thickness of the saw measured across the face of the 
teeth {see end view, Fig. 13). To give the saw clearance, 

13 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

alternate teeth are bent or hammered sideways, the re- 
mainder being bent in the opposite direction. The result 
of this " set " is that a saw cut or kerf is of appreciable 
width, quite enough in itself to make all the difference 
between a good-fitting and a bad-fitting joint. 

For example, two pieces of wood sawn off a length of 
stuff measuring 3 in. by 1 in. are to be halved together to 
make a cross. It is quite obvious that in each piece 
must be cut a recess measuring exactly 3 in. wide and | in. 
deep. Two lines are scratched or pencilled on 
by the aid of the try square at right angles to 
the edges of each piece, and exactly 3 in. apart. 
These lines are continued across the edges of the 
stuff, also by means of the try square, and a 
line midway between the two faces is drawn 
Fig. 13. upon the edges by means of a marking gauge 
v"ew°of i^^S- '^^)' To avoid mistakes in cutting, pencil a 
Saw heavy cross on the face and edges of the part 

Teeth, 

showing that IS to bc rcmovcd, and next make the 
cuts with the tenon saw. If both cuts are 
made exactly on the lines, half of each cut will be in the 
body of the work and half in the waste that is to be re- 
moved, and when the recess is finished, you will find that 
you will have a loose fit, the recess being too wide by the 
width of the saw across the teeth. If the cuts are made 
outside the lines, the greater will be the discrepancy. 
You will take care, then, to make the cuts inside of and 
touching the lines. That is, in joint making saw-cuts 
must always be made in the waste, whilst in cutting off 
a piece that is required to be of precise length the cut 
must also come inside the line, so that the piece is not 

H 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



robbed of an amount equal to the thickness of the saw 
teeth. 

Planes. — Everybody recognises a plane when he sees 
it. The body is of wood or metal, and in it is held a cutter 
or chisel at such an angle that it takes a shaving off the 
wood when the plane is pushed forward. Long planes 
are used for making the work flat and true, short ones for 
bringing the work to a smooth surface. Trying or 
trueing planes are 
among the longest 
in general employ- 
ment ; next comes 
the jack plane, the 
most popular of all; 
and the small plane 
is the smoothing 
plane. 

In wooden planes 
the cutter is held by a 
wedge. Modern planes 
are often of iron or 
steel, and the cutter 
is held in position and 
is adjusted by means 
of a simple screw. It is of not much use telling you 
how to use a plane unless first of all you know how 
to take it apart, sharpen the cutter, replace the iron 
wedge, and adjust it to get a good result. 

If you have an up-to-date metal plane, the method 
of removing the cutter will be too obvious to require 
description here. In the case of a wooden plane, either 

15 




Fig. 14. 



-Striking Plane on Bench to 
loosen the Wedge 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



jack or smoothing, the cutter can only be removed by 
first loosening the wooden wedge. Take a jack plane in 
your hands as in Fig. 14^ which shows the tool upside 
down. The wooden part is held by the left hand, while 
the right holds the wedge and cutter. Bring the plane 
down smartly on the top of the bench, and this will have 
the effect of releasing the wedge, and allowing the iron 
to be withdrawn ; or, if you prefer^ hold the plane as in 





Fig. 16. — Hammer- 
stop or Striking- 
button in Plane 



Fig. 15. — Striking Plane with Hammer to 
loosen the Wedge 

Fig. 15, the right side up, the fingers of the left hand 
reaching to its face, and the thumb being inserted in the 
opening (which is known as the throat )j and press on the 
face of the iron. Take the hammer in the right hand and 
give two or three smart knocks on the top of the plane in 
front of the left hand. This is a more gradual method 
of loosening the wedge, but the hammer is liable to mark 
the plane unless the latter has what is known as a 
"hammer stop" let into it. Fig. 16 shows such a stop 
in section. It is simply a plug of hard wood with a 

i6 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



rounded top glued into a hole that has been bored in 
the plane stock for its reception. This plug takes the 
hammer blows and prevents disfigurement. 

The plane is now in three parts — the stock, the wedge, 

and the cutting 
iron (Fig. 17). 
Now, the last- 
mentioned is 
itself in two parts 
{see Fig. 18) ; one 
of these is simply 
a wide chisel with 
its corners very 



Fig. 17.— Stock and Wedge of Jack Plane 





Fig. 18. — Plane Cutter and Cap- or Break-Iron 

slightly rounded off so as to prevent the cutter dig- 
ging into the wood and leaving ridges. Screwed to 
the cutter is the cap-iron, or break-iron, which does 
not reach quite to the cutting edge, and which must 
be removed before the cutter can be sharpened. If 
c 17 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



you look at Fig. 19 you will see how a plane does its 
work. The cutter is projecting slightly from the face 
or sole, and pares a shaving from the wood over which 
the plane is pushed. This shaving enters the plane 
through a narrow mouth where it meets with the rounded 
end or face of the cap-iron, which breaks its stiffness and 
gives it a curved shape, so that as the plane continues to 
work the shaving easily passes out through the wide 
throat. In an old plane reduced by much wear the 

mouth has be- 
come wider than 
it was originally, 
and the shaving 
tends to split 
away from the 
work because 
there is not 
enough wood im- 
mediately in front 
of the cutter to hold the grain down. Very often an 
old tool is made serviceable again by gluing in a 
block across its face so as to reduce the width of the 
mouth. 

To remove the cap-iron from the cutter is simply a 
matter of undoing a screw. Now we have the cutter to 
sharpen and set, and the work will afford us an example 
of how all woodworking chisels are prepared for their 
work. The hand chisel, for example, is sharpened and 
set in almost exactly the same way as a plane iron, and 
the one explanation will do for both of the tools. There 
is just one difference. The edge of a chisel is straight, 

i8 




Fig. 19. — " Cut-away " view of Jack Plane, 
showing the working principle 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 

whilst that of a plane cutter is very slightly curved for a 
reason already explained. 

Sharpening Plane Irons and Chisels. — When you 
receive a new plane, you may find that the edge of the 
cutter has been ground but has not been sharpened. 
Such a cutter may be sharpened many times for every 
once that it will require to be ground. The grinding 
angle is about 20°, and the sharpening angle about 30°, 






Fig. 20.— End of 

Chisel, showing 

Grinding Angle (A) 

and Sharpening or 

Setting Angle (B) 



Fig. 20a.— Showing 

how Edge of Chisel is 

spoilt by Bad Setting ; 

note the Rounded 

Angle 



Fig. 21. — Cross -sec- 
tion through Oilstone 

and its Case ; 

the Rubber Plugs hold 

Case to the Bench 



as indicated in Fig. 20. You can go on resharpening the 
cutter from time to time until much of the grinding angle 
has been worn away. Then the cutter must be taken 
to somebody who has a grindstone and a new bevel of 
20° ground on it. I won't trouble you with the grind- 
ing, as not many boys have a grindstone of their own, 
but the sharpening for which an oilstone is necessary is 
an operation which you must master. The professional 
woodworker gets easier and better results with edge tools 
very largely because he thoroughly understands how to 

IQ 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

keep them in order, whereas a great many amateurs fail 
in this respect. 

First you will need a good oilstone, and preferably it 
should have a case (Fig. 21). If you have one already in 
the house make that do. If you propose to buy a new one, 
ask for a Washita, or an Arkansas, both of them natural 
stones, or for a medium grade India stone, which is an 




Fig. 22. — Sharpening or Setting a Chisel ; the Handle 
is here shown a trifle too high 



artificial product of a reliable quality. Have some sweet 
oil in a can handy on the bench and grip the cutter or 
chisel with the right hand, as shown in Fig. 22. Place 
the fingers of the left hand lower down the tool so as to 
provide pressure, whilst the right hand will see that the 
proper angle (about 30°) is kept. This is where 
difficulty will come in at first. The right hand will not 
move to and fro quite parallel with the face of the stone, 



20 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 

and the sharpened face of the cutter will have a rounded 
instead of a perfectly straight surface {see Fig. 20a), but 
that is a matter which care and practice will put right. 

Anoint the stone with oil and start the rubbing. I 
expect it will take you at least ten minutes at first to get 
anything like a good edge on a blunt-ground chisel. Your 
arms will ache and your hands be cramped, and you will 
be tempted to leave off before you ought to and make do 




— 


. . : ;-p«i 



Fig. 23. — Diagram indicating Side 

Movement in Sharpening a 

Plane Gutter 



Fig. 24.— Rounded Edge of 
Smoothing Plane Cutter (A) 
and Jack Plane Cutter (B) 



with an inferior edge. If you fall to the temptation you 
will work far harder at a later stage than ought to 
be necessary. You will waste time, and will fail to pro- 
duce that proper, cleanly-cut surface which should be the 
pride of every craftsman. Keep a chisel moving to and 
fro in the same path, but a plane cutter should be moved 
slightly from side to side {see Fig. 23) to produce the slight 
roundness of edge of which I have already spoken, a 
(Fig. 24) shows the edge of a smoothing plane cutter, and 
B that of a jack plane cutter. 

In the course of a few minutes you will see that the 



21 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

rubbing is beginning to tell, but do not try the edge with 
your finger, for obvious reasons ; the eye alone will tell 
you when the bluntness has been rubbed off. Wipe the 
tool when it has reached this stage on a piece of rag, and 
notice that on the opposite face of the chisel a wire edge 
has been turned up. This is removed by placing the 
tool perfectly flat on the oilstone — avoid the least sus- 
picion of an angle — and giving one or two gentle rubs. 
The cutter should now be in good condition, but can be 
made even keener by stropping it on a piece of leather 

into which has been rubbed a 
mixture of tallow and crocus 
powder. 

Sharpening Gouges. — Let 
me drop a note in here on the 
method of sharpening a gouge, 
which, after all, is only a chisel 
of curved section. There are two 
Fig. 25.— Sharpening Gouge on sorts of gougcs as there are two 
^*°°* sorts of chisels, the firmer and 

the paring gouge, the firmer having the bevel ground on 
the outside, and the paring gouge having an inside bevel. 
The firmer gouge is sharpened in the same way as an 
ordinary chisel except that the tool must be kept turning 
to and fro as the curve demands (Fig, 25). A wire edge 
will be turned up as before, and this must be removed on 
an oilstone slip of curved section on which the gouge 
will lie in intimate contact while being gently rubbed. 

The paring gouge must be sharpened from the inside 
on an oilstone slip, it being customary to hold the tool 
still and move the slip to and fro, taking great care that 

22 




How to Use Woodworking Tools 



the correct angle is maintained. To remove the wire 
edge in this case, place the gouge flat on an oilstone and 
give a gentle rub or two whilst slightly revolving the 
tool, in this case, also, taking the very greatest care 
not to produce an opposing bevel. Gouges should be 
well stropped. 

Re - assemblin£f the 
Plane. — Now we can get 
back to the plane. The 
cutter has been sharpened 
and stropped to a wonder- 
ful keenness, and we wish 
to get it back into the stock 
and see what it can do. 
Holding the cutter in one 
hand and the cap-iron in 
the other, slide them to- 
gether until the cutting 
edge projects by, say, two 
or three thirty-seconds of 
an inch. Then tighten up 
the screw, and place the 
double iron in the throat of 
the plane. The thumb of 
the left hand will hold the cutter in position until the 
wedge can be pushed in firmly. Lean the back end of 
the plane on the edge of the bench in such a position 
{see Fig. 26) that you can sight down the sole or face and 
observe the exact amount by which the cutter projects. 
A very slight projection is all that is required. Give the 
wedge a tap or two with the hammer, and the cutter will 

23 




Fig. 26.— Sighting along Sole of 
Plane for Projection of Cutter 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

be fixed. Again sight down the face, and if the cutter 
projects too far give the front of the plane a light blow 
with the hammer and again give a tap on the wedge. 
On the other hand, if there is not enough projection, give 
the cutter a gentle tap from the back, all the while sighting 

down the sole to see 
you don't over-do it. 
Using a Plane. — 
You will be anxious 
to try the plane. The 
method of holding it 
in the case of a jack 
plane or other large 
tool will be quite ob- 
vious from Fig. 27. 
The handle, called a 
toat, is grasped by the 
right hand, while the 
left hand bridges the 
front, the thumb being 
on the near side and 
the four fingers on the 
other side, as illus- 
trated. 




Fig. 27. — How to hold the Jack Plane 



A smoothing plane has no handle and needs to be 
grasped firmly at the back by the right hand, as in Fig. 28, 
whilst the left is passed right round the front end, the 
thumb lying on top of the plane, and the fingers 
extending to the far side. 

The jack plane should be given a straightforward 
thrust, each stroke being as long as the work demands or 

24 



PLANING 





Holding a Jack Plane 



Position when Planing 





Testing Planed Wood Across 
the Grain 



Sighting a Piece of Planed Wood 
for Straightness 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



as the craftsman can make it. Just as the cut starts, 
the left hand presses down the front of the plane, but 
gradually this pressure is released as the stroke nears 
its end. You will need to hold yourself correctly. Stand- 
ing in front of the bench, the right foot will point towards 
it whilst the left will be parallel to it, the direction of 
planing being towards the left. If the tool fails to take 
off a thin even 
shaving and if you 
are convinced that 
it is in good order, 
you had better 
make quite sure 
that you are not 
working against 
the grain, as this 
has the effect of 
splitting off the 
shavings as they 
are formed. Should 
it happen, reverse 
the work. Of 
course, wood with 

a very curly grain is not easily planed ; indeed, sometimes 
planing has to be replaced by the use of a woodworker's 
scraper, which is a piece of flat steel with a keen but 
turned-over edge. 

Much the same advice applies to the manipulation 
of the smoothing plane. It must be lifted sharply on 
reaching the end of the stroke so as not to leave a mark ; 
and it is unwise to attempt at first to plane end grain 

25 




Fig. 28. — How to hold the Smoothing Plane 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

with it, although in cases where this must be done it is 
usual to pare away the extreme end of the edge that is 
to be planed ; another dodge is to clamp on a piece of 
waste stuff so that if the grain of the wood is split by the 
plane the damage will occur to the waste and not to the 
work. 

The Scraper. — Not many amateurs can use this 
simple tool successfully. I mention it because it is an 
alternative to the plane when working on curly-grain 
woods, whilst on other woods it is used after the smoothing 
plane. Fig. 29 shows the principle on which it cuts, and 
Fig. 30 the tool itself. The cutting edges are a b and 
c D, and the rounded corners should be noted. It is 
used as in Fig. 31. the scraper being pushed away from 
the worker, as from a to b, but occasionally it is manipu- 
lated in the reverse direction. The scraper must have been 
ground with square edges, and these should be brought 
into perfect condition by rubbing on the oilstone in the 
position shown by Fig. 32, afterwards placing it flat on 
the stone (as in Fig. 33) and removing any burr. Then 
rub with a polished gouge (as in Fig. 34) till the sides are 
polished; again squaring the edge on the stone should 
any burr be caused. The next proceeding is to turn up 
a very fine burr (this is much exaggerated in the diagram, 
Fig. 29), to do which the scraper is laid flat on the edge of 
the bench, as in Fig. 35, and a polished gouge or any 
similar smooth steel tool used in an upright position is 
lightly pressed about twice along the edge at right angles 
to the flat sides of the scraper. You will probably need 
to make a good many attempts before you succeed (re- 
setting the tool on the oilstone every time), but success 

26 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



is worth while, because the scraper is a wonderful tool- 
a real cutting and not a scraping tool — and its " sweet 
use gives a lot of pleasure. 




Fig, 33 



Fig. 29 



Fig. 29. — Working Principle of Woodworker's Scraper 

Figs. 30 and 31. — Scraper and how to hold it 

Figs. 32 to 35. — Four Stages in sharpening the Scraper 

Chisels. — The boy mechanic will show his excellence 
as a carpenter by his skill in the use of a chisel. Every- 
body knows the shape of the ordinary chisel, and I will 
only say that the long thin chisel is used for paring, and 
a shorter one, the firmer chisel, for making mortises, etc., 

27 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



for which purpose it is driven with a mallet. Carpenters 
have a very thick chisel known as a mortise chisel with 
which to lever chips out of slots. Ordinary chisels vary 
in width from -^^ in. to 2 in., and they are sharpened 
exactly as a plane iron {see p. 19), except that the edge 
forms a straight line, whereas in a plane iron the corners 

are rounded 
off. On a grind- 
stone a chisel 
is ground to an 
angle of 20° or 
25° (the latter 
for hard wood), 
but this is not 
the angle ad- 
hered to when 
the chisel is 
placed on the 
oilstone. Some- 
thing a trifle 
blunter is 
aimed at, so as to give the edge greater strength ; thus the 
set or sharpened edge forms an angle of about 30° to 35°. 
Fig. 20, on page 19, shows the working end of a chisel, 
and it will be seen from this that the tool can be 
repeatedly rubbed up on an oilstone until most of the 
ground bevel has been worn away. Then regrinding on 
a grindstone becomes necessary. 

I believe the great trouble in using chisels is the diffi- 
culty of making and keeping them sharp. Beginners 
don't seem to be able to get a straight bevel. They get, 

28 




Fig. 36. — Paring on the Slant 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



instead of the flat facet, a rounded face surface with which 
sweet cutting is impossible {seeFig. 20a). Practice sharp- 
ening the tool until you can do it really well, and the actual 
use of the chisel will then be a much simpler matter. 

A chisel is used for two purposes — paring by hand and 
chipping when driven by a mallet. By the way, don't 
hit the handle of a chisel ^*-t- 
with a hammer ; use a ' 

wooden mallet. Just be- 
cause a chisel is sharp^, 
and you like to swing 
your mallet, do not be 
tempted to take out deep 
chips. It is so easy to 
overstep the mark, and 
also to splinter the work 
on the side farthest from 
you. The best practice 
is to remove a chunk of 
wood by means of reason- 
ably thin parings, and Fig. 37.-Vertical Paring of Corner 

paring may be done horizontally or vertically, which- 
ever you find the more convenient. 

Sometimes paring is done on the slant, but, of course, 
do not try to pare against the grain, or you may split 
the work. In other words, when paring off a corner 
{see Fig. 36), start from the side, and cut slantwise across 
the grain, the wood being held upright in the vice so that 
the pared surface is approximately level. You can pare 
off a corner by having the wood quite flat on a bench, 
and here again you must start at the side of the wood 

29 




Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



and work towards the end {see Fig. 37), as otherwise the 
chisel may easily dig in and split the work down the grain 
when the chisel nears the side. An experienced wood- 
worker would use the chisel in a job of this sort with a 
to-and-fro motion, so that the edge of the tool enters the 
work much as would the blade of a knife. If you take 
up a stout piece of wood, and try to remove a thick chip 
from the end with a knife you will almost unconsciously 
give the knife a slight movement lengthwise as well as 

forwards so as to 
facilitate the cut- 
ting action. The 
same principle 
frequently applies 
in using a chisel. 
Try to sharpen a 
thick pencil with 
a chisel and you 
will get the idea 
at once. 

Makingf a Halved Joint. — There is a common joint 
which will afford us some practice in using a chisel. It is 
the halved joint (Fig. 10, on page 12) to which I remember 
my first introduction was in the making of a toy sword, 
in which it is customary to sink the crosspiece flush 
with the handle. 

By means of a square two lines are set out on the face 
of each piece, the distance between these lines being the 
width of the stuff. On both sides of each piece the lines 
already drawn should be squared over (Fig. 38), and at 
half the thickness^ there is drawn a line with a gauge 




Fig. 38. — Setting-out and Working Gross- 
halved Joint 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 



parallel with the face of the work ; thus both pieces are 
set out in exactly the same way. Mark with a cross any 
pieces to be cut out. Next, with a fine saw held perfectly 
upright, cut down on the lines until the half thickness is 
reached, treating both pieces in the same way. On your 
discretion in cutting these lines will depend whether the 
joint is a good fit {see 
page 14). If you were 
now to take a chisel 
and a mallet, place 
the edge of the chisel 
on the horizontal line 
connecting the bot- 
toms of the cuts, and 
then give a good blow 
with the mallet, prob- 
ably two things would 
happen. A notch with 
an uneven slanting 
bottom would be 
formed, and the 
farther side of the 
work would be badly 
splintered. So first study the grain, and if you can 
see that such a course would be safe, you can take a 
good thick chip to start with, and then, using the chisel 
carefully — if the notch is a wide one adopt the sideways 
movement of the chisel — pare down, as in Fig. 89, until 
you have formed a flat surface flush with the line scribed 
on the side. Treat both pieces in the same way, test 
the bottom of the halvings for flatness and squareness, 

31 




Fig. 39. — Horizontal Paring in making 
a Halved Joint 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

fit the joint together, and make any adjustment required. 
In deepening the notch by a slight shave, if this should 
be necessary, the chisel is afterwards used as a knife to 
detach any parings that may still be held by their edges 
{see Fig. 40) ; it is drawn along in the angle of the cut with 
its front point raised, the flat of the chisel being in contact 
with the wall of the notch. 






Fig. 40. — Cleaning out the Halving with 
Corner of Chisel 



Fig. 41.— Starting 
Chisel on the Slant 
in Overhand Paring 



Overhand Paring. — For paring a short length off the 
end of a piece of work, start the chisel on the slant, as in 
Fig. 41, and when you feel that it is making progress 
bring it to the upright. Cut only a little at a time, and 
the work will be easier and of cleaner finish ; this applies 
to all chiselling. It will be obvious that in vertical paring, 
known as overhand paring, a great deal more power can 
be applied to the chisel. The work should be so held 

32 



USING SCREWDRIVERS 



1 


A 


Ibk 








^«l^ 


^5!" 


1 

\ 


- y 


? 


5 




1 


wm^ 


M|piM 


Hi.9 




IL 


■SS 




US 


j^%."jUilllff^ 


!• 


] 



Narrow Screwdriver Injures 
the Screw-head 



Slanting the Tool Injures Screw- 
driver and Screw-head 




Removing Damaged Screw 
with Spanner 



Using Screwdriver-bit 
in Brace 



How to Use Woodworking Tools 

that the eye can look down the chisel and see that the 
paring is quite vertical. The left hand will hold the tool 
near the point and guide it to its work, while the right 
will grasp the handle, the^thumb coming on top {see 
Fig. 36). 

In later chapters I will show you how to make a few 
simple joints — the dovetail among them — and will illus- 
trate and describe a few wooden constructions upon which, 
if you can get the material, you may try your 'prentice 
hand. 

Screwdrivers. — The selection of a screwdriver is 
more important than some boys think. One of the plates 
in this book shows a narrow screwdriver used on a stout 
screw, the effect being to spoil the edge of the screwdriver 
and injure the head of the screw. To the right of this in 
the plate is a screwdriver held at a slight angle, a common 
ault with careless people. Here, again, the head is 
easily damaged, and once broken it may be difficult to 
get the screw out again. One method is to square the 
head with the file and to withdraw it by means of a spanner, 
this operation being shown in the plate. The screwdriver 
point or end should be almost parallel in thickness, and a 
fairly good fit in the nick of the screw. A powerful form 
of screwdriver is a brace into which a screwdriver bit has 
been inserted, such a combination being shown in use in 
the plate already referred to. I often use this device for 
driving long thick screws, but I find it has a big dis- 
advantage ; it is difficult to maintain the pressure so as to 
prevent the bit slipping from the head of the screw. 
The arm or crank of the brace gives enormous power, so 
much so indeed, that if the head of the screw is weak, or 
D 33 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the point of the screwdriver bit is inclined to be hard 
and brittle, either or both may be broken. 

The effect of using a screwdriver wider than the screw 
is to mark the work should it be necessary to insert the 
screw flush with the surface. The ordinary wood screw, 
actually of steel but known as a wood screw to differentiate 
it from screws for metalwork, has a countersunk head, 
and in careful work it will be necessary to chamfer or 
countersink the screw hole to accommodate it. The 
countersinking can be done with gouge or chisel or by 
means of a nose-bit or special countersinking bit used in a 
brace. 

To remove rusted-in screws, put the screwdriver in 
place in the nick and give a smart knock with a hammer 
to break the rust joint ; or try the effect of expanding 
the screw by heating it with a red hot poker. 

I give some information on the use of nails and screws 
in a much later chapter. 



34 



MAKING AND USING VARIOUS CEMENTS 

Cementing a Rim on a Biscuit Barrel. — These in- 
structions will apply just as well to the fixing of a mount 
or rim to the reservoir of a lamp, a glass pepper-pot, glass 
inkstand, and many other things. First with a bradawl 
scrape away the old cement from the glass or china article 
and also from the mount or rim, but take care in the latter 
case that you don't bend the metal and spoil the fit. 
Put some boiling water in a cup and drop in some crystals 
of alum, adding more and more until the water refuses 
to dissolve any more of the substance. Such a solution 
as this, as you have probably learnt in your chemistry 
lessons, is known as " saturated." When it is fairly 
cool, put a couple of spoonfuls of perfectly fresh plaster- 
of-paris in a saucer, add some of the alum solution, and 
mix up rapidly to a rather wet consistency. Then, 
without waiting, put some of the cement on the vessel or 
in the mount, and press the two parts into close contact, 
taking the greatest care that the mount " sits '* square 
and level. In half an hour's time any surplus plaster can 
be scraped away, and the vessel can be used twenty-four 
hours later. 

Another way, equally good, is to use powdered alum 
alone. First see that the articles are free from dirt and 
grease. Powder the alum, place the rim upside down, 

35 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

fill it with the powder, and put it on a metal plate over a 
low gas flame or on the warm kitchen range, and you will 
note that in the course of a few minutes the alum will 
get pasty. When this occurs, press the glass or china 
article firmly into the rim, quickly invert, see that the 
rim is in its correct position, and put aside for half an 
hour in a cool place, when the article will be ready for use. 

Cementing Celluloid and Xylonite. — Boys and girls 
use lots of things nowadays that are made of celluloid 
(xylonite is only another name for it). Girls have combs 
and hair ornaments and brush-backs and ping-pong balls 
of this material, whilst boys have celluloid knife-handles, 
celluloid accumulator cases and celluloid films for hand 
cameras and cinematograph machines. By the way, I 
once had some beautiful hair-brushes which I thought 
had backs of fine ivory, but one day I touched them with 
turpentine, and immediately I became aware of a faint 
smell of camphor. They were celluloid I You will know 
now how to test yours. It is just as well to find out 
which articles are celluloid and which are not, because, 
as you are probably aware, this substance ignites with 
an almost explosive violence. 

When celluloid gets broken, it may generally be easily 
cemented. It dissolves very readily in a liquid known as 
amyl acetate, which you will know by its strong smell of 
those sweets sold under the name of " pear-drops." So 
all you have to do when you want some celluloid cement 
is to put a few scraps of a broken celluloid toy, etc., in 
I oz. of the amyl acetate, and after the celluloid has dis- 
solved apply the solution with a camel-hair brush, and 
bring the two parts together. An excellent solvent for 

36 



Making and Using Various Cements 



celluloid is a mixture of equal parts of acetone and the 
amyl acetate. "Non-flam" film (made of a celluloid 
substitute which does not readily ignite) will not dissolve 
in either of the above, but will be found to do so readily 
in chloroform, which when not in use must be kept in a 
tightly stoppered bottle, a point which applies to all 
c.eUuloid solvents and cements. But chloroform is danger- 
ous stuff in the hands of inexperienced people. 







Fig. 3. — Cinemato- 
graph Film joined 
together 



Fig. 1. — Torn Cine- 
matograph Film 



Fig. 2. — Film with 

Picture Space 

cut out 



Cinematograph films are made of celluloid, and if you 
are called upon to repair them (they easily get torn when 
in use. Fig. 1 showing an example at a and b) you will 
need to cut out a picture, but this will make no appreciable 
difference to the effect on the screen. Cut the film as in 
Fig. 2, making one cut at the dividing line b, but leaving 
a little strip a, below the dividing line cd. Place the 
piece containing strip a on the table, and, first wetting 
the strip with the tongue, carefully scrape away the photo- 

37 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

graphic emulsion or gelatine below the line c d, using a 
penknife. Then apply the cement already mentioned to 
the back of b, and bring the two together, taking par- 
ticular care that the joint is absolutely square and other- 
wise correct {see Fig. 3). Keep under pressure till dry. 

China and Glass Cements. — I suppose most of my 
readers are called on some time or other to repair a broken 
article of glass or china. There are scores of cements 
that may be used for this purpose, apart from those that 
can be bought ready made. Plaster-of-paris, mixed with 
a solution of alum, as already explained, will mend china, 
but not so strongly as to allow of the article being washed 
with hot water or used as a hot-water container. 

An excellent cement for either china or glass is sodium 
silicate which possibly is employed in your household 
under the name of " water-glass " for preserving eggs. 
It should be used exactly as it comes from the lever-lid 
tin in which it is bought, and should be applied thinly, 
but it is desirable to warm the article, and the water- 
glass is more easily applied if it is warmed too. The 
article requires to be held together by tying tightly with 
string or by some other means until the joint is hard. 

A first-rate cement for china, glass and stone is a 
mixture of water-glass, manganese, and zinc white all 
ground up together ; and a putty that answers well for 
glass can be made by mixing chalk with water-glass. It 
is even better than the usual oilshop putty in one respect 
— it only takes a few hours to dry. 

A good many boys turn their hand to the making of 
an aquarium, and the usual cement used for this purpose 
is a mixture of various oxides of lead. One of the easiest 

38 



Making and Using Various Cements 

to make consists of the best quality white-lead, bought 
already ground up in oil, mixed with equal parts of dry 
red-lead and dry litharge. But remember in using lead 
cements that they are poisonous ; they should not, there- 
fore, be worked up in or applied with the hands, and after 
they have been given a week or two in which to dry and 
harden, the aquarium should have many changes of water 
before introducing either pond weeds or fish. Perhaps 
the safest way is to give the cement a few days to dry, 
and then apply three coats of good varnish, allowing at 
least two days for each coat to dry before applying the 
next. In any case, a few small minnows should be tried 
in the water before introducing valuable fish. 

Cementing Solid Tyres to Rims. — In the old days 
before pneumatic tyres were known, the solid tyres 
with which the " ordinary " bicycle was fitted had to be 
cemented to the rim. Nowadays, it is only mailcart 
and perambulator tyres — and those not of the best quality 
— which are so fixed. Should a tyre of this kind — the 
non-wired kind — become loose, you will find it a fairly 
simple matter to re-cement it in place, but it is a job 
requiring some amount of care. The cement used is a 
mixture of gutta-percha and pitch, and can be bought at 
any hardware stores. It may be used just as though it is 
sealing-wax, and the empty rim smeared with it all round, 
heating the cement in a candle flame or by means of a 
red-hot poker. The cement having been applied, stretch 
the tyre into place, and spin the wheel on its axle. Have 
ready a spirit lamp, which, as you know, has a smokeless 
flame, and as the wheel spins approach the flame to the 
rim so as to melt the cement evenly all round. Keep the 

39 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

wheel rotating, as otherwise there is risk of spoiling any 
paint or enamel on the rim, which, in any case, will not 
be improved in appearance. You can make a very cheap 
but efficient spirit lamp from a ginger-beer bottle by 
pouring into it some methylated spirit and then stuffing 
in a wick made of loose cotton strands. 

In the chapter on Cycle Adjustments and Tyre Repairs 
I deal with the cementing of patches on pneumatic tyres. 

Using Portland Cement. — If you have occasion 
to use Portland cement, small quantities of which can 
be bought at oilshops, of builders' merchants, etc., mix it 
thoroughly with an equal measure of perfectly clean and 
fine sharp sand, add a little water, and at once continue 
the mixing until you see the mortar is of a nice even texture. 
This will make a very strong cement and a more durable 
one than if the sand were omitted. For cementing a 
brick into place, or for any odd repair about the yard or 
garden, you can mix two measures of sand with one of 
cement. I put in a splendid floor to a summerhouse once 
with a concrete made by mixing 1 part of cement with 
4 or 5 parts of sandy gravel dug up from a pit made in 
my garden. Such a floor will last scores of years, whereas 
a wooden floor often decays in a few years' time. 



40 



ERECTING ELECTRIC LAMPS AND BELLS 

Batteries. — What a great convenience it is to have 
an electric light over your bed ! I shall show you in this 
chapter how you can instal a tiny electric lamp more than 
enough to see the time by ; you can make the battery, 
erect the wiring, and connect up the lamp yourself, and 
be independent of any main-supply system. I have said 
you can " make " the battery ; so you can, but it is 
generally cheaper to buy it already made. However, 1 
expect you are one of those boys who glory in making 
everything for themselves, and so in another chapter I 
am giving you full instructions on how to make a battery 
suitable for running a pea-lamp for a few moments at a 
time, using it only occasionally over a period of several 
months. This type of battery {see pages 112 to 115) is 
known as a primary battery, and it produces an electric 
current by the chemical action of the substances with 
which it is charged. 

There is a much more convenient type of battery, 
known as a secondary or storage battery, otherwise an 
accumulator. It contains lead plates immersed in dilute 
sulphuric acid, and is charged with current from a dynamo, 
from a primary battery, from another accumulator, from 
the electric-light main, or from whatever source of electric 
current happens to be convenient. The primary battery 

41 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

once exhausted needs to be recharged with chemicals ; 
the accumulator, when run down, simply requires a new 
electric charge. The accumulator is more expensive 
than the primary battery, but can receive and yield a 
far greater amount of current, and is a more reliable 
appliance. 

Now for a bedroom or workshop light, one or other of 
these devices is necessary unless, of course, you can afford 
a little dynamo and to run it by means of an engine of 
some kind ; but, generally speaking, the cost and the 
attention needed by the engine make such an arrange- 
ment rather out of the question, and most boys fall back 
on the accumulator or the simple primary battery. 

In another chapter, I explain how a Leclanche cell or 
battery is made. A really big cell of this type, say one 
that will hold about two quarts, will keep a metallic- 
filament quarter-ampere lamp glowing brightly for several 
minutes, after which it needs several days to build up its 
reserve of strength once more. Very few primary cells 
can ring a bell or light a lamp for long together. But this 
same big cell might last a year without giving any trouble, 
if it were just used now and then — a few seconds at a 
time — for illuminating a watch-stand, the face of a clock 
or the reception-room of your sister's doUs'-house. 

Much better results can be had from an accumulator 
of much smaller dimensions. A 4-volt accumulator of 
what is known as 5-ampere hour capacity would light a 
number of tiny lamps giving a total of 2 candle-power for 
as long as ten hours, which means that, as in " miniature " 
or " model " lighting, the lamps are seldom " on " for 
more than very brief periods at a time, the accumulator 

42 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 

would last a long, long time on one charge, which charge, 
by the way, would cost only a few pence. 

Some Electrical Terms. — Amperes and candle-powers 
are all very well as terms, but what do they mean ? 
asks the reader who is new to this sort of thing. Well, 
we speak of the volume of an electric current in " am- 









Fig. 1. — Miniature Metallic-filament Electric Lamps 



peres," just as we speak of so many " gallons " of water. 
The force that drives a volume of current through any 
substance is measured in " volts," and the resistance 
which anything offers to the passage of the current is 
measured in " ohms." You must always remember these 
three terms — volts, amperes, and ohms. You must try 
to imagine a piece of any substance striving to prevent by 

43 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

means of ohms of resistance the passage through it of 
amperes of current which are being pushed along by volts 
of pressure or electromotive force. The pushing power 
is often referred to as " E.M.F.," meaning electromotive 
force, or as " difference of potential," or simply as " pres- 
sure." Amperes multiplied by volts gives us another 
term — watts. If I tell you that with small metal-filament 
lamps you can get 1 candle-power of light from 1 watt of 
current you will understand that a 1 -candle-power lamp 
marked 0.25 ampere will require a pressure or voltage of 
4, because a watt is simply the product of amperes and 
volts multiplied together. Quarter-ampere multiplied by 
4 volts equals 1 watt, and 1 watt in the type of lamp we 
have in mind equals (about) 1 candle-power. 

Systems of Connections. — Perhaps you know that 
when glow lamps first became popular their filaments 
(very fine wires) were of carbon, but nowadays lamp 
filaments are made of one of the rare metals, chiefly 
tungsten, and they give a better light than the carbon 
lamps and use less current. 

Why does the lamp glow? Simply because its fila- 
ment offers such a high resistance to the passage of the 
current that it become intensely hot, and, as everybody 
knows, most substances when raised to very high tempera- 
tures emit light. The filaments cannot burn because 
the bulbs have been exhausted of air. If you obtain a 
catalogue from a dealer in the smaller electrical supplies 
you will find in it particulars of a great variety of miniature 
lamps of different shapes and powers, and you will have 
no difficulty in selecting them to suit the supply of current 
you happen to have, but before you can tell exactly which 

44 



Erecting Electric Lamps and^Bells 

lamps to order, you must know how you propose to 
arrange them, and must understand the two or three 
methods of connecting up both batteries and lamps. 
There are two poles or terminals to both of these devices 
{see Fig. 1a). A battery has a positive pole at which the 
current is supposed to return. Inside the battery, current 
is supposed to pass from the negative pole to the positive. 
Thus the very first lesson to be learnt is that you must 
provide a circular path for the passage of a current. Not 




Neaafive 
Pole 



tkoafive Plate 
or E lee trod A 



flcldulated 
Water 



fhsitire Plate 
•or Electrode 



Fig. 1a. — Experimental form of Electric Cell or Battery 

only must you take the current out, but you must bring 
it back again. We will take a little cell and a two-yard 
length of copper wire. We will attach one end of the wire 
to one pole, and the remaining end to the other pole. 
In this way we have provided the circular path (as in 
Fig. 2), and current will instantly flow ; indeed, it will 
flow so easily that the battery will rapidly run down. 
The more resistance we offer to the passage of the current 
the longer will the battery remain in condition. 

45 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

We will cut the wire in the middle. There are now in 
effect two wires, one from each pole, and no current can 
flow. Taking a miniature lamp or even an electric bell, 





Fig. 2. — Cell and Simplest Circuit 

we connect the outer ends of the wires to the terminals 
(Fig. 3). Once again the circular path is provided ; we have 
" completed the circuit," and the current will at once 
do its work by causing the lamp to glow or the bell to ring. 




Fig. 3. — Cell, .Electric Bell, and Simplest Circuit 

We have now an electric circuit of the simplest possible 
kind. We can cut again where we like, and introduce a 
simple switch or push, by means of which we can " make " 




Fig. 4. — Cell, Bell and Push, and Simplest Circuit 

or " break " the circuit and glow the lamp or ring the bell 
whenever we like (see Fig. 4). 

Lamps or batteries so arranged that the whole of 

46 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 



A 



S 



4 



A A 



n 



Fig. 5 



Figs. 5 and 6 
— Examples 
of Lamps and 
Cells con- 
nected in 
Series (A, ac- 
cumulator ; F, 
fuse or safety 
device; S, 
switch) 




HHH 



Fi«. 6 



the current passes through each and all of them are said to 
be connected in " series " {see Figs. 5 and 6). Essentially 
the entire circuit is one endless path with the bells or lamps 
or batteries distributed to suit convenience. 

In a battery of cells connected in series the total 
voltage equals that^of all the individual cells added to- 



Q 



jy 




Fig. 7 



T T T T 



Fig. 8 

Fi^s. 7 and 8. — Examples of Lamps and CelU 

connected in Parallel 

47 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

gether, but the current in amperes is no greater than that 
of one cell. For example, two 2-volt cells each giving 
1 ampere of current give, when connected in series, a 
current of 1 ampere at a pressure of 4 volts. 

In what is known as the " parallel " system, the current 
consists of the two main wires with the bells, batteries, 
etc., disposed between them — bridge fashion — with one 




Figs. 9 and 10. — Examples 
of Lamps and Cells 
connected in Series- 
Parallel 





- 1 1 




li:)i'. 




- 


r i -r 1 



Fig. 10 

pole of each connected to one main and the remaining 
pole to the other. Such a system is clearly shown in 
Figs. 7 and 8. Cells connected in parallel to form a battery 
have a total voltage equal to that of one cell only, but 
the yield in amperes is multiplied by the number of cells. 
Thus the two cells already mentioned would give in parallel 
a current of 2 amperes at a pressure of 2 volts. 

Often a circuit has batteries connected in series and 
lamps or bells in parallel. This is known as series-parallel 

48 



WIRING ELECTRIC LAMPS AND SWITCHES 







Tightening the Pinch 
Screws 



Gutting off Ends of Wire Strands 
with Scissors 




Fixing Cord Grip of Lamp Holder 



Wiring-up a Wall Switch 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 



(see Fig. 9). In Fig. lOj there are four cells disposed in 
tAvo sets. The two cells in each set are in series with one 
another, and the two batteries so formed are in parallel 
with one another. If 



each individual cell is 
2-volt, 1-ampere, the 
current yielded by the 
whole battery will be 
2 amperes at 4- volts 
pressure. 

Erecting Lamps 
and Bells.— With this 
theoretical information 
we may pass on to the 
practical work of in- 
stalling one or more 
lamps or bells. 

You will have de- 
cided on the type of 
battery you are going 
to use. Unless it is 
an accumulator or a 
home-made device, you 
will probably prefer a 
dry cell or cells, because 
they are non-spillable. 



Differ rermmal to be 
■ connecred h push and-*', 
rhe of her one to ba fiery ■ 




Fig. 11. — Diagram showing Principle and 
Connections of Electric Trembling Bell 



clean, and give the minimum of trouble. You will choose 
a nice dry situation- but not a hot one. The contents 
of this type of cell are really moist, not dry, and if you 
put it in too warm a place such as over a stove, or near a 
chimney breast, it might soon fail, as a result of evapora- 
E 49 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



Dther termmal to be 
-connecred To push and ■ 
the other one to battery 



tion. It is better to get a box that will take it just com- 
fortably and protect it from the atmosphere, and from 
your brother's prying fingers. If it is for a bedroom light, 

perhaps the box can go 
on a shelf, and be 
hidden by some books, 
or possibly room can 
be found for it in a 
cupboard, but not a 
damp one ; it gener- 
ally happens that small 
holes will have to be 
bored in the woodwork 
to allow the wires to 
pass. As only a few 
yards of the conduct- 
ing wire will be wanted 
— the shorter the run 
of wire the better — your 
best plan will be to 
buy the best insulated 
electric-bell wire (Stan- 
dard Wire Gauge, No. 
16), and connect a 
length with one pole 
or terminal of the 
battery. To allow of 
slight adjustment of position, and to prevent vibration 
causing the wire to be disconnected, it is usual to form the 
last few inches of the conductor into a spring by winding 
it round a lead pencil, and then removing the pencil. 

50 




Fig. 11a. — Diagram showing Principle and 

Connections of Electric Single-stroke 

Bell 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 

Doubtless you have seen it hundreds of times when ex- 
amining electric bells. You have now to decide the 
positions of the lamp and push or switch. 

In many of these arrangements I am now going to 
describe you can use either a bell or a lamp, providing 
that the battery is sufficiently powerful. You can easily 
prove by simple experiment that a little flash-lamp battery 
will ring an ordinary electric-bell quite vigorously, but 
not for long. A quart-size Leclanch^ cell will ring a 
bell or light a miniature lamp for a second or so at a time 
at fairly long intervals over a period ^^^^^^ 
of a year or more. "N ^^^g^ ^^ 

How an Electric Bell Works. — Per- '^^^^^^ 

haps I had better make it plain how a ^^m ^^ 

bell works. It consists, as in Fig. 11, ^^P\^^ 

of an electro-magnet d, a contact maker ^^^^^^^ 

and breaker e k J, an armature and ^'^^^^^^ 

hammer g h, and a gong n. The electro- f^^; sp^rlTgs tf Jsin 
magnet is two cores of soft iron wound ^"^^ 

with fine wire. Its poles F attract the armature and 
hammer only when current is passing through the coils. 
Immediately the armature is attracted and the gong in 
consequence struck by the hammer, the circuit is broken, 
current no longer flows through the coils, and the armature 
is released, only to re-establish the circuit again, ring the 
bell, again " unmake " the circuit, and so on. You can 
follow the passage of the current from terminal a, through 
spring c to coils d, then to the insulated contact pillar e, 
platinum contacts k, spring J, and thence by means of 
the metal frame l (indicated by the stipple lines) and 
through wire m to the terminal b. The above is an 

5« 




Fig. 13. — Vertical sec- 
tion through Bell Push 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

ordinary " trembling " bell, a type that does not work 
well when connected in series with a similar bell. For 
series working, one trembling bell and the rest single- 
stroke bells (Fig. 11a) should be used ; in the latter, there 
is no " make-and-break " effect. 

A Simple Circuit. — You wish to 
light one lamp or ring one bell at 
pleasure from a push. This is the 
simplest of all electrical arrange- 
ments, and has already been shown 
in Fig. 4. Put the lamp or bell in the required position. 
From one terminal run a wire a to the battery. (In 
electrical diagrams the usual symbol for a battery is 
nil). From the battery's other terminal run a wire c 
to the push, continuing with wire b from the second 
terminal of the push to the remaining terminal of the 
lamp or bell. Fig. 4 shows a bell, but the diagram is 
equally correct for a lamp. 

The push is simply a little device for momentarily 
" making " or " completing " the circuit. 
It contains two springs, usual patterns 
of which are shown in Fig. 12, and the 
wires are connected individually to them. 
Normally these springs do not touch one 
another {see the section, Fig. 13), but 
they are made to do so when the little 
bone or ivory knob is pressed in, thus 
completing the circuit. A push is better 
on a miniature lamp system or for bell work than a 
switch (Fig. 14), because with the latter you may be 
tempted to leave the lamp or bell at work for too long 

52 




Fig. 14.— Simple 
home-made One- 
way Switch 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 




Fig. 22. — Making Joint in Electrical Wires 



Suppose that the gas-pipe connection is out of the 
question, and that the electric bell is in your workshop 
at the foot of a long garden and the push is in your house, 
the bell being used to summon you to meals. You can 
still dispense with a second wire. At each end of the 
system bury at about 4 ft. or so some old waste piece of 
metal — an old clean oil-can or a leaky galvanised iron 
bath — and make good electrical connection with bell at 
one end of the circuit and push at the other. Pack round 
it some coke or 
gasworks breeze, 
and there you 
are ! But you need 
a rather damp 
soil to give good 
conductivity. 

Joints in Elec- 
trical Wires. — 
You will need to 
know how to 
join two electrical wires together. For purely tem- 
porary purposes simple twisting together is good enough. 
For permanent work, bad joints must never be 
allowed, since they oppose resistance to the current and 
waste it. Moist air soon corrodes exposed joints. First 
scrape off the covering, clean the ends of the wires with 
emery cloth, cross them and wind one round the other as 
in Fig. 22. Smear with " Fluxite," and use stick solder 
or coat with " Tinol " instead, applying heat with a bit 
or a Bunsen or blowpipe flame. In the case of branch 
joints (T joints), the connection is as shown in Fig. 23. 

57. 




Fig. 23. — Making a Branch Joint 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

In all cases after soldering, replace any of the old insula- 
tion if this is possible, or, instead, wind on prepared 
rubber tape smeared with rubber solution, finishing with 
paraffined cotton. All these insulating materials are 
obtainable from the electrical dealers. 

If the Bell Fails. — Faults in electric bell systems 
often necessitate the use of a galvanometer for their 
detection, an instrument which not every boy mechanic 
is likely to have, but in simple systems of the kind which 
I have described in this chapter, providing that the wiring 
is erected carefully and in a common-sense way, there 
should be an entire absence of line faults, and what troubles 
may occur will be due rather to exhausted batteries, 
defective bells, and loose or dirty connections. If the bell 
rings sometimes and will not ring at others, you may sus- 
pect a loose connection somewhere in the system, and 
you may look for it especially at pushes, switches, and the 
bell. The scraping of contacts — especially the " platinum' ' 
contacts in the bell — with a knife or rubbing with a 
piece of emery cloth often works wonders on old bells 
and other fittings that have been in damp places. Many 
fittings contain a lot of brass, and brass is very susceptible 
to damp. Corroded brass always gives trouble electrically. 

If much trouble from damp is to be feared, take time 
in the first place to make really good contacts between 
the wires and fittings, and then touch the connections 
with vaseline, which will defy the damp for a long time. 

The use of flexible cord or cable is a great convenience, 
both for bell and model light work, but the tiny wires of 
which the cables are composed cause trouble if one or two 
are left loose ; thus one tiny wire projecting from a con- 

58 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 




nection may easily cause a most baffling occasional 
ringing, and will exhaust the battery. 

In the course of time the battery will need renewal. If 
a wet Leclanche is in use the re-amalgamation of the zinc 
and the renewing of the sal-ammoniac solution will often 
work wonders, but in the case of a very 
old battery it may be necessary to renew 
the porous pot as well. But do not rush 
to the conclusion that the battery is 
at fault until you have examined the 
system in its every detail. 

Wiring up a Lampholder. — The 
lampholder to receive miniature lamps 
may have a cord-grip or a flange as 
shown respectively in Figs. 24 and 25. 
Flanges are for use on battens, etc., 
and the wires need to be conducted, to 
the terminals, behind the flange which is 
screwed to its support. The cord-grip 
holder is more generally convenient, 
as it may be suspended with a minimum 
of trouble exactly where it is wanted. It 
has a cord-grip D (Fig.24) which takes the 
weight of the holder and lamp off the 
actual terminals, thus preventing a fall of the lamp through 
the failure of the connections. The milled ring c holds the 
brass body to the porcelain interior, and the milled cap b 
supports a shade, whilst a is the cyhndrical part or socket 
in which is the well-known bayonet slot to receive the 
lamp. Inside the brass body above ring c is the porcelain 
fitting with terminals to receive the two ends of the circuit 

59 



Fig. 24.— Cord- 
grip Electric 
Lampholder 




Fig. 25.— Flanged 
Electric Lamp- 
holder 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

wires, the last-mentioned being bared of their insulation 
only just sufficiently to allow of their being clamped or 
pinched tightly into place. The terminals have little 
plunger contacts at the bottom which make flexible con- 
tact with the actual lamp terminals or with crescent- 
shaped brass plates in the lamp socket. 

Now in wiring up such a lampholder, the parts are, 
threaded in the following order : First the cord-grip, 
then the brass body, and then the porcelain interior ; 
the milled rings and socket containing the bayonet slot 
can be put on afterwards. The bare wires pass through 
holes in the porcelain body, and are held by the screws 
in the terminal blocks. Be careful when you are using 
flexible cable, which, as I have explained, consists of a 
large number of very fine wires, that no odd wires stray 
across to the opposite terminal, or even touch the metal 
sides of the lampholder, and so cause a short circuit. 
The bare wires having been connected, all surplus must be 
cut off close to avoid risk of short-circuiting. Then 
bring together the brass lampholder and the porcelain 
fitting, and screw on the milled ring which holds them 
together. The cord-grip contains two wooden fittings 
which are now to be put in place, taking care that they 
fit into the little groove which prevents their being 
twisted when the cord-grip is screwed down. The grip 
wedges the fitting to the support wires, and, as already 
stated, relieves the actual electrical connection of any 
strain. 

To put on the lamp shade it is generally necessary to 
invert the holder. Then the shade can be carefully in- 
serted over the screw threads, and the second milled ring 

60 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 

or cap screwed on to hold it in place, but do not screw it 
up very tightly, or you may crack the glass shade. 

Attaching Wires to Walls, etc. — You may need a 
word or two with regard to the method of running the 
wire for a permanent job, but you will not forget my advice 
to get the best wire you can afford. Primary batteries 
easily run down if there is a small leakage anywhere, 
and leakage easily occurs when insulation is defective. 
Therefore, when putting up wire for a model lighting or 
an electric bell system in your den or workshop, and 
particularly if the wire has to cross places which are sub- 
jected to dampness, you would do well always to use wire 
having at least a rubber and double-cotton covering. A 
single-cotton insulated wire is all very well for temporary 
use in a dry situation, but not for much else. If you are 
putting up a system which is expected to last for years 
and the wires cross an open garden, you ought to use 
nothing inferior to a double-rubber or even a vulcanised 
rubber insulation. For a little system installed in your 
bedroom or den which will not be subjected to dampness, 
quite a cheap form of insulation will be good enough. 
But use nothing smaller than No. 16 gauge wire, remem- 
bering that the smaller the cross-section of the wire, the 
greater is the resistance opposed to the passage of electric 
current, and the less useful effect will you get. The 
circuit from battery to lamp or bell should be as short 
and direct as possible, for every extra foot of wire intro- 
duced means extra resistance for the current to overcome 
before it can start to do any useful work for you. 

If the wire has a proper insulation no more elaborate 
method of running it need be adopted than that of simply 

6i 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

securing it to the woodwork by means of staples, but do 
not drive them too far home, as the very first thing to 
be remembered is that the insulation that covers the 
wire must on no account be damaged. For instance, if 
the two wires carrying current to and from a lamp or bell 
be placed under one staple, and you drive this home in 
such a way as to injure the insulation, the staple will form 
part of the circuit, which will now be " shorted." The 
lamp or bell might get a little current, but not much, 
and in the event of the push or switch being between the 
staple and the lamp, etc., your battery will rapidly exhaust 
itself. Ordinary wire staples can be used with care, and 
you can introduce a tiny scrap of old inner tube or any 
similar insulating material just under the head so as to 
minimise the risk of actual metallic contact between 
staple and conductor. Or you can obtain from the 
dealers special insulating staples, just as you please, or, 
better still, you can use a twin flexible cable and run it 
through insulated screw-eyes. This " twin-flex " is two 
cables twisted together, each consisting of a number of 
fine wires. 

The professional electrician runs wires through walls, 
floors and ceilings, but that is a proceeding which I do 
not advise the boy mechanic to attempt unless he has 
full permission to do the work, and also is perfectly sure 
before he starts as to what he proposes to do, how he will 
do it, and that in the course of the job he will not cause 
much unnecessary injury to the building. My firm advice 
is not to cut holes anywhere unless it be in a garden shed 
or workroom of rough construction where a few holes 
will do no particular harm. Wires are never drawn 

62 



Erecting Electric Lamps and Bells 

through the rough holes cut in brickwork, but for all such 
positions should be encased in metal piping. Holes are 
frequently cut in wood partitions by means of long gimlets 
(electricians' or wiremen's gimlets), and if care is taken to 
see that the holes are perfectly smooth, and that the wire 
is well insulated and not drawn too tight, I see no reason 
why for bell work or model lighting you should not dis- 
pense with tubes in such places. Generally avoid cutting 
and drilling, and run your wires wherever possible in such 
inconspicuous positions as the tops of cornices, picture 
rails, and skirtings, under window sills, etc. Sometimes 
you can run your wires up pipes to which you can secure 
them with little clips in the form shown in Fig. 21, or, as 
already described in this chapter, you might make the 
pipes themselves part of the circuit and simply connect 
the wires to them, using the same clip, and seeing that 
both pipe and wire are perfectly clean and bright so as to 
get good electrical contact. You can even dispense with 
clips by binding the circuit wire to the pipe by means of 
three or four turns of fine wire, everything being bright 
and clean as before. 

It saves much time and trouble to employ the twin 
flexible cable already mentioned, insulated with rubber 
and cotton, or, better still, rubber and silk, and simply 
to run it through insulated screw-eyes which are obtainable 
from all electrical dealers. A great advantage of using 
these special eyes, either closed or open, is that the wire 
is kept clear of the surface, and is therefore far less affected 
by any dampness which may be present in the walls or 
ceiling. The screw-eyes can be inserted at suitable places, 
and nothing is better and likely to do less damage than 

63 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

this method. The only difficulty may be in the case of 
ceilings, as unless the screw enters the lath behind the 
plaster, no fitting depending on it will be safe. Unless a 
slight discoloration shows the difference between the 
laths and the spaces between them, there is only one way 
of determining their position, and that is to probe in one 
or two places with a very fine sharp awl. When the 
screw-eyes are used, the flexible cable will need to be 
drawn very carefully through them, unless you go to the 
expense of using the sort with open eyes. These are 
very convenient, as all that is necessary is to lay the 
flexible in them and give the porcelain part a turn so as to 
close the eye. 



64 



THE HEKTOGRAPH COPIER: HOW TO 
MAKE AND USE IT 

I WELL remember when I was a small boy making a jelli- 
graph of my own invention, and thereby earning the sum 
of one halfpenny as profit, the writing out of a sheet of 
instructions on using the copier being thrown in gratis. 
Did I but know it, I ran the risk of an action for infringe- 
ment of patent rights, because at that time the hektograph, 
as the jelly copier is called, was the subject of a patent 
which did not expire until 1894. The jelligraph I invented 
consisted simply of one pennyworth of glue with, I think, 
a little moist sugar added, and it worked quite well until 
it dried up or went mouldy. It so happens that glue is 
the foundation of the proper hektograph jelly. It ought 
to be the best and clearest glue you can buy, and will be 
in the form of hard cake, not cloudy, nor should it have a 
decidedly unpleasant smell. If you can get the use of a 
flat metal tray holding about half a pint of water, you will 
need not more than 2 oz. of the hard glue, and as such 
a small quantity is required you can just as well afford the 
best as the worst. Wrap it in a piece of canvas, break it 
up with a hammer, place the fragments in a basin, and 
just about cover them with water. After a few hours 
you will find that the glue has swollen up into a 
jelly. Place this in an old clean handkerchief, or in a 
F 65 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



piece of muslin, and squeeze off any surplus water. Borrow 
a 2-lb. earthenware jam-jar, and in it place the glue jelly, 
covering it with 10 oz. of glycerine. Put the jar in a 
saucepan containing a small amount of water, and bring 
the whole to the boil, afterwards allowing it to simmer, 
and stirring it from time to time to be quite sure that the 
glycerine and glue have combined to make a nice syrupy 
solution. The object of adding the glycerine is simply to 
prevent the glue drying to a hard cake and to allow of 
its being melted up time after time without losing its 

I moisture. Another ad- 



L 



15 



Fig. 1.- 



-Pattern for Metal Tray to 
hold Hektograph 



dition has now to be 
made, this time for the 
purpose of preventing 
the composition going 
mouldy. If you have 
ever discovered a piece 
of cake glue in a damp 
cupboard, you will know 
the state glue quickly 
gets into if not kept in a dry and airy place. A few 
drops of any essential oil — say, about ten drops of oil 
of cloves — will be all that is necessary. You can often 
detect the smell of oil of cloves in office pastes and similar 
compositions. Stir the oil into the composition, and 
straightway pour the contents of the jar into the tray 
prepared for it, placing the tray on a perfectly level table 
in a cool place until the jelly is set. I made the lid of a 
biscuit tin serve my purpose, but something a trifle deeper 
would be better. It is not difficult to make a tray at home 
from thin tinplate cut out to the pattern shown in the 

66 



The Hektograph Copier 

diagram (Fig. 1), and bent up on the inside lines, the 
little extra pieces or lugs to be bent round the corners 
where they will be secured with solder. Instructions on 
soldering are given in another chapter. The bending of 
the metal can be done over the perfectly square edge of a 
piece of board. I have often seen in ironmongers' shopfy 
trays costing only a few pence that would serve the 
purpose splendidly. 

I suppose you know how to use a hektograph ? Per- 
haps your school magazine may have been " printed " 
on such a device. The original must be written with a 
certain kind of ink, which is best bought ready made, 
but which, if you wish to do everything yourself, you can 
prepare at home by mixing together 2 oz. of methylated 
spirit, 2 oz. of water, and 4 oz. of glycerine, and adding 
about I oz. of aniline dye. Aniline violet will do for the 
blue- violet colour so common, aniline black for black ; 
methyl green for green ; eosin for red, etc. etc. The 
quantities given will make a good-sized cupful, which is 
probably ever so much more than you will need, but I 
don't think you can generally buy a smaller amount of 
the aniline colour I have mentioned. I am told that 
Judson's violet dye and Stephens' ebony stain answer 
very well as hektograph inks ; but personally I have 
never given them a trial. 

You will find no difficulty in using the hektograph. 
Gently stroke its surface with a soft, clean sponge, take 
off any surplus moisture with a piece of fluffless blotting 
paper or with a clean handkerchief, and then place the 
written matter face downward on the jelly and gently rub 
it into close contact with a handkerchief made into a 

67 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



pad. Leave it for about three minutes, and then peel it 
off by first raising it at one corner. To take a copy, simply 
place a piece of paper in contact with the jelly, gently press 
it into contact with the handkerchief pad, leave for a 
moment or so, and peel off as before. The later copies will 
require a much longer contact than the early ones. 

It helps to preserve the margin of the jelly surround- 
ing the transferred writing a (Fig. 2) from scratches, etc., 
if you lay down on the moist surface four paper strips 
' B. A corner piece c just clearing the 
written matter makes it easier to raise 
the "printed" sheets. 

The number of good copies obtain- 
able will depend upon the quality 
and quantity of the ink (by the way, 
never blot the ink when writing the 
original, but allow it to dry naturally), 
and the care with which the hekto- 
protecting surface graph lias been used, but it ought not 
of Hektograph ^^ ^^ j^^g ^^1^11 about twenty, and is not 

likely to be more than twice or thrice that number. 

When the jelly is finished with, gently re-melt it in its 
tray over a small peep of gas or in a slow oven, and remove 
to a level surface to cool as before. In course of time the 
jelly will become coloured with the ink absorbed, and its 
appearance will be improved by mixing in a small amount 
of very fine whiting. 

A Putty Hektograph. — Some people think that the 
" putty " hektograph is far superior to the jelly. It 
certainly is more convenient in use, inasmuch as should 
any accident occur to spoil the smoothness of its surface, 

68 





8 


B 


y. A 


B 


C 


. .^.^i: 




' 



The Hektograph Copier 

which in the case of the jelly would necessitate re-melting, 
all that you need to do is to smooth it down again with a 
flat piece of wood. Then, too, after the number of copies 
has been taken, and you need to transfer or lay down 
another original, all you do is to wipe the putty with a wet 
sponge, blot up the surplus moisture with some fluffless 
blotting-paper pressed into close contact, and the hekto- 
graph is immediately ready for use again. It is a trifle 
more troublesome to make. Get 1 lb. of the finest whiting. 
You had better go to an artists' colourman and ask for 
"gilder's whiting." First of all only half the quantity is 
used. It must be in the form of a fine powder, and should 
be thoroughly mixed with, and beaten up with, 8 oz. of 
glycerine. Then leave it till the next day, by which time 
some of the glycerine will have come to the surface. The 
rest of the whiting, also in powder, should now be added. 
It will not be easy to incorporate the whole thoroughly 
well, but if you work at it in stages and put it aside for a 
few hours, you will find that in due course the glycerine 
will permeate the whiting. Finally, the mass will re- 
semble dough, which will need to be placed in a tray and 
rolled out perfectly smooth and flat with a ruler which 
will run on the edges of the tray. The method of taking 
the copies is the same as before. 

Let me revert to the jelly copier and give a word of 
advice. Materials vary, and the proportions given may 
occasionally need to be altered. If the jelly appears to be 
too soft, put it back into the jar and add a little glue, or, 
instead, keep it at the simmer for some little while. On 
the other hand, if the jelly gets too hard, re-heat and add 
glycerine, gently simmering for a time as before. 

69 



INSERTING A WINDOW PANE 

How often used I to watch a glazier at work and think 
how easy the job was ! I have not altered my opinion 
very much, but I know now that there were some things 
about the job I did not know then. Amateurs and 
especially boy mechanics, are so anxious to get the new 

. .^ glass in position that 

© © © ■''Ijini, ''<!>]. W\ they do not take 

V J llii|||ii|^^ i[ij, i|| iiA •' 

A L___l__i sufficient care to see 

Fig. 1.— Hack Knife that every particle 

of the old glass and especially of the putty that held it 
is first removed. That, after allj is one of the secrets of 
successful glazing. 

Let me assume (I am drawing on my personal history) 
that a cricket ball that never should have been " played 
about " with so close to the kitchen window has made 
a mess of one of the panes, and that you have offered to 
repair the damage done ! 

To remove the old putty, you will need a hack knife, 
and generally there is no need to buy the special tool 
shown in Fig. 1. Most houses possess a table knife that 
has been broken off short, and that will be the very tool 
for your purpose. With that and a hammer, you can 
cut out every morsel of the old putty. But be very care- 
ful that you do not chip into the woodwork of the frame. 

70 



Inserting a Window Pane 



You ma3^ come across a few brads, or tiny triangular 
pieces of sheet metal which have been driven in flush with 
the surface of the glass to assist the putty in holding the 
pane in place. Remove them with pincers. Thoroughly 
clean out the rebate or open groove until you are down 
to the bare wood. If there is an undercut groove in the 
top bar, take care to pick out all the old putty from it. 
If the hack knife is not of much use there, try a thin 
chisel, a bradawl, or a small screwdriver, but see that 
the putty does come 
out. 

Next carefully 
measure the rebate 
size of the frame. 
I may just remark 
that every frame 
that takes a piece 
of glass {see Fig. 2) 
has three sizes — the 
over-all size ; the 
sight size, that is, the measurement of that portion of the 
frame or glass through which the light passes, and thirdly, 
the rebate size, that is, the measurement across the frame, 
including the rebates or open grooves in which the glass 
lies. For example, a picture frame in front of me as I 
write measures 16 in. by 19 in. over-all ; the sight size — 
that portion of the glass which one can see from the front — 
measures 10| in. by 13| in. ; the rebate size is 11 in. by 
14 in., which means that the glass is resting in a rebate 
about \ in. wide which has been made on the back inside 
edge of all four pieces of the frame. 

71 




Fig. 2.- 



-Diagram indicating the Three Sizes 
of a Frame to hold Glass 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

NoAv if this picture-frame were a window-frame, the 
piece of glass required to fit it would not measure 11 in. 
by 14 in., the actual rebate size. A glass of such dimen- 
sions probably would not go into the frame, but if it did 
it would be far too tight, and in very hot weather when the 
glass would expand, or as the result of any stress that 
might come upon the frame, the glass would easily crack. 
This, indeed, is the secret of those mysterious cracks 
which occur sometimes in picture-frame glasses when a 
room is unduly heated. So the piece of glass should be 
I in. smaller each way than the rebate size ; in other 
words, the glass will measure 10| in. by 13| in. Take 
the exact dimensions to the glass-cutter, tell him what the 
glass is to be used for, and he will give j^ou the right sort 
and exact size. 

Qualities of glass are known chiefly by the weight per 
square foot, the thinnest being " 15 oz.," and a usual 
quality being " 21 oz.," which is about y\, in. thick. For 
fairly large panes, " 26 oz." glass is used, this having a 
thickness of roughly | in. 

The first thing to do in inserting the glass is to prepare 
a bed for it by squeezing putty all round the rebate in one 
even thickness. This is generally done with the fingers, 
and there is nothing poisonous in glaziers' putty. Then 
the glass is pressed into position, rubbing it near the 
edges (not in the centre) with the fingers of both hands at 
once. Of course, use as much care as possible, especially 
if the glass is poor and thin. The pressure will cause the 
putty to squeeze out at the back {see Fig. 3), and you must 
continue the pressure until only a thin layer is left. If 
the pane is of fair size, and there is any risk of its being 

72 



Inserting a Window Pane 



blown out before the putty is hard, it will be as well to 
insert a few fine brads, driving them in sufficiently far 
that they will be covered by the facing putty when this is 
applied. These l>rads can be driven in with an old chisel. 
Sometimes professional glaziers use triangular pieces of 
zinc, quite tiny 



■. 4), 
the 




Fig. 3. — Glass 
bedded in 
Putty 



Fig. 4.— 

Zinc 
Triangle 




Fig. 5. — Section 
showing Glass 
and Front and 
Back Putties 



scraps {see Fi 
instead of 
brads. 

The front putty 
is now put in {see 
Fig. 5), cutting it to 
a nice bevel with 
the putty knife 
(Fig. 6) which may 
be either a special 
tool bought for the ^H- 6.— Putty Knife 

purpose or a short stiff table knife. After this is 
done, but not before, use the same knife to cut away 
the surplus putty which has been squeezed through at 
the back. It is as well to leave the pane untouched for 
a week after completing the job. 




73 



VARIOUS WORKSHOP METALS: HOW TO 
IDENTIFY AND WORK THEM 

So many metals (iron, copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, 
etc.) and alloys (steel, gunmetal, brass, solder, etc.) are 
used in metalworking, that the boy mechanic may be 
at a loss to distinguish one from the other. Even experts 
find it difficult to tell some steel from some iron, and to 
distinguish between certain qualities and varieties of 
steel itself. Then again the alloys are legion, and only a 
skilled metallurgist and chemist could identify some 
of them from others. So I shall speak in this chapter 
only of those everyday metals and alloys which the reader 
is likely to handle in his home workshop. 

Cast Iron. — This is a very impure iron obtained by 
smelting iron ore. Pure iron does not exist in the 
engineering workshop or in commerce. Indeed, it is the 
impurities, sometimes, which give iron its special value. 
Cast iron is harder than mild steel, but softer than hard- 
ened steel, as to which I will give more information later. 
The weight of a metal or alloy will be some guide in 
identifying it, and in every case I will give the weight in 
ounces per cubic inch. Cast iron weighs slightly over 
4 oz. per cubic inch. It is very brittle, so much so that 
dropped on a stone floor a cast iron article will generally 
break. It cannot be bent, but can generally be filed, 

74 



Various Workshop Metals 

chipped with a chisel, or sawn with a hack saw; but in 
using a chisel, always remember that the metal may be 
so weak that the whole of the casting may be broken 
by a heavy blow. In cutting cast iron with a file a powder 
is produced, whereas when wrought iron is worked, the 
filings take the form of very small shavings. This is 
because the cast metal is very brittle, and the wrought 
metal tough and fibrous. Touch a piece of cast iron with 
a drop of nitric acid, leave it on for a few minutes, wipe 
off, and thoroughly rinse with water ; you will see a 
dull black spot representing the carbon in the metal 
which has been laid bare by the dissolving away of some 
particles of the iron. 

Wrought Iron. — This is refined cast iron, most of 
the carbon and impurities having been removed by re- 
melting, and it is usual for the wrought iron to be rolled 
into plates, rails, bars, and rods. The weight of a cubic 
inch is about 4| oz., but varies slightly. What a different 
metal this is to the cast iron ! Its brittleness has vanished, 
and in its place is a toughness which renders it, next to 
steel the most reliable metal in the world. It is of a 
fibrous nature (cast iron and steel are not), it can be bent 
double without breaking, and it can be filed, sawn, drilled, 
and chipped quite well, although its tougher nature makes 
the work a little more arduous than is the case with cast 
iron. In working wrought iron, you can use a lubricant 
— either oil, or very soapy water. Tested with nitric 
acid in the way already explained, you will reveal a dull 
greyish spot, there being very little carbon in this metal 
to be brought into prominence by dissolving away of the 
iron particles. Wrought iron can be welded — that is to 

75 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

say, two pieces of it made red hot can be hammered to- 
gether to form one. 

Mild Steel. — There is more than one way of making 
mild steel, but the principle is to refine cast iron, add 
carbon and put the metal through a process which actually 
alloys the carbon with the iron. The steel is squeezed 
out between rolls to the shape required. A cubic inch 
of mild steel weighs about 4| oz. It is softer than most 
other irons and steels, and like wrought iron it can be 
easily bent cold, is weldable, and can be worked with 
file, saw, and drill, although with greater difficulty, as it 
is a tougher metal. Unless a file is rubbed with chalk 
or oil it soon becomes " pinned " with either wrought 
iron or mild steel ; that is, the spaces between the 
teeth get filled up with the detached particles of the 
metal. 

Cast Steel or Too! Steel. — This is commonly called 
crucible cast steel ; it is a " high carbon " steel, that is, 
it contains a fairly high percentage of carbon actually 
alloyed with the iron, and the result is to change the 
whole character of the metal, which becomes quite 
different from cast iron, wrought iron, or even mild steel. 
It now has a property which not one of the materials just 
mentioned possesses — it may be hardened by heat treat- 
ment : Made red hot, and suddenly plunged into oil or 
water, it becomes extremely hard and brittle. If it is too 
hard or too brittle for the purpose in view it needs to be 
heated to a temperature much below the first and then 
either allowed to cool of itself, or plunged into oil or 
water as before. This second treatment is known as 
tempering, inasmuch as it has "tempered" the extreme 

76 



Various Workshop Metals 

hardness. It is this ability to be rendered extremely 
hard at the will of the worker that makes carbon steel so 
useful. A tool made from it can be ground and sharpened 
to a cutting edge, and the steel will be hard enough to 
retain it, whereas a cast-iron tool would be broken the 
first time the tool were used, and one of wrought iron 
or mild steel would be turned up. 

Tool steel is manufactured by melting some such 
material as blister steel in a crucible and adding an ore 
rich in carbon. The blister steel mentioned is itself 
sometimes used for the making of inferior tools, and is the 
result of heating cast iron and charcoal to a high tempera- 
ture, the steel when cold showing blisters on its surface. 
Cast steel is obtainable by the worker in the form of rods 
and bars. It may be filed in its unhardened state, but 
it is wise to use an old file for the purpose. Frequently 
it is difficult to work tool steel unless it is first annealed, 
a process which consists in slowly but thoroughly heating 
the metal, and then burying it in cinders or ashes so that 
it cools very slowly, this having the effect of thoroughly 
softening the steel. The same lubricant as used for 
wrought iron and cast iron (oil or very soapy water) 
answers when filing, sawing, drilling, etc. As brittleness 
always accompanies hardness, it is possible to break off 
a piece from a steel bar or rod by first filing or chiselling 
a nick all round, and then giving a blow with the hammer. 
Very hard steel will scratch glass, so that you will quite 
understand it is out of the question to think of filing or 
sawing it, but until the hardness has been given it by the 
heat treatment already referred to, it can be worked with 
the ordinary cutting tools. A piece of tool steel tested 

77 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

with nitric acid, as already explained, will show a 
brownish black spot. 

Copper. — This metal is obtained by smelting certain 
ores and refining the product a number of times. One 
cubic inch weighs about 5 oz. It is softer than tin or 
zinc, and is very malleable, more so than iron or steel. 
Filing, sawing- drilling, etc., are affected by the clinging 
nature of the metal, but the work is all the easier for 
using a soapy water lubricant. 

There are many valuable alloys containing copper, 
the strongest being phosphor-bronze, a mixture of copper, 
tin, and phosphorus, capable of standing great wear, and 
for that reason used in machines for bearing surfaces, etc. 
Bronze or gunmetal is another very valuable alloy, con- 
taining from 85 to 90 per cent, of copper and 15 to 10 
per cent, of tin ; this alloy is fairly easily worked, but 
as the percentages of the two ingredients vary so much, 
it is not easy to give definite particulars. A cubic inch 
weighs rouglily 5 oz. Brass is an alloy of 70 to 80 per 
cent, of copper, with 30 to 20 per cent, of zinc, an average 
brass weighing nearly 5 oz. per cubic inch, and being harder 
than silver. Cast brass is softer than tin, but the drawn 
brass is harder than that metal. Brass is very easily 
filed, chipped, sawn, drilled, etc., but needs to be treated 
cautiously owing to its lack of strength. Neither brass 
nor gunmetal requires a lubricant in working. It is ex- 
tremely important to work in a new file on brass, and 
afterwards use it on iron and steel. 

Tin. — This is a metal which is not often used alone. 
It is obtained by smelting certain ores, and its chief use 
is to alloy with lead to make solder, and to alloy with 

78 



Various Workshop Metals 

zinc and copper to make babbit metal, which, being harder 
than lead; but easily melted, can be readily moulded and 
cast, and is commonly used as a bearing metal. Tin itself 
is harder than lead, but softer than zinc, and a cubic inch 
of it weighs about 4| oz. You frequently see in a book 
some such instruction as " Take a sheet of tin and bend 
it," etc. etc. What is meant by an instruction of that 
sort is, take a piece of " tin plate," which nowadays is 
thin mild steel that has been coated with tin to protect 
it from attack by atmosphere and moisture. Tinning is a 
very easy process, as any metal which has been perfectly 
cleaned, and made hot, will take a coat of tin if brought 
into contact with that metal ; see, for example, what 
another chapter has to say with regard to the tinning of 
a soldering bit. 

Lead. — This is the softest of workshop metals, but a 
very valuable one. It is extremely malleable, and will 
go into almost any form when worked by a hammer. 
It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife, which will 
leave a bright metallic lustre. It is heavy, a cubic inch 
weighing slightly more than 6| oz. Few acids have any 
effect upon it, but either nitric acid or aqua regia (1 part 
of nitric acid mixed with 2 parts of hydrochloric acid) 
readily dissolves it. It is easily filed, but very rapidly 
gives trouble owing to the clogging up of the file, for 
which reason, a single-cut file {see p. 98) is preferable 
to the ordinary double-cut file, this also applying to 
solder, aluminium, and copper. 

Zinc. — This is another useful metal at times, but is 
chiefly used alloyed with copper to make brass. It is 
of about the same hardness as tin. It is a bluish white 

79 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

metal, and weighs about 4 oz. per cubic inch. Used in 
batteries it requires to be amalgamated with mercury 
{see p. 112). 

Aluminium. — This is made in the electric furnace 
and has proved to be one of the most useful metals ever 
discovered. It is the lightest workshop metal, a cubic 
inch weighing barely 1| oz. It can be bent and worked 
without difficulty, a good lubricant being ordinary paraffin 
oil or turpentine. A file is soon clogged by it. I mentioned 
just now the ease with which metals are tinned, but 
aluminium is the exception, and this accounts for the 
great difficulty in obtaining a really satisfactory soldered 
joint in this metal. Should you ever try to solder alu- 
minium, get one of the special solders containing phos- 
phorus, and use a bent copper bit by means of which you 
can well scrape the solid surface before and while melting 
the solder. Hot aluminium oxidises with extreme rapidity, 
and immediately a film of this oxide forms it must be 
scraped off and the soldering instantly proceeded with 
unless the flux or the solder used has the property of 
dissolving aluminium oxide. The phosphor solder has this 
property, and when combined with the use of a bent bit, 
gives undoubtedly the best results obtainable, short of 
welding by means of the oxy-acetylene blowpipe flame. 
Aluminium bronze is a useful alloy, this being made by 
melting together either copper or bronze with 5 to 10 per 
cent, of aluminium. 

Expensive and Precious Metals. — Silver, gold and 
platinum have valuable qualities from the metalworker's 
point of view, but their expense prevents their being 
generally used. Silver, however, is commonly employed 

8o 



o 



< 

H 





Various Workshop Metals 

in soldering (see p. 135). It is harder than gold, but softer 
than brass or tin, and a cubic inch of it weighs about 
6 oz. Gold is the only yellow metal, and resists the action 
of most commerical acids, although it is easily dissolved 
by aqua regia, the proportions of which have already 
been given. It is harder than lead, but softer than silver, 
and its weight is about 11'16 oz. per cubic inch. Platinum, 
which is one of the whitish metals, and is even harder than 
gold, also resists the action of acids, even aqua regia 
having only a slow action upon it. In hardness it is below 
most qualities of drawn brass. It is extremely heavy, a 
cubic inch of it weighing from 12 to 13 oz., according to 
the preparation and treatment the platinum has received. 
Its extremely high cost puts it beyond ordinary reach. 



8i 



MAKING PICTURE FRAMES 

One of the most useful and pleasurable jobs falling to the 
lot of the boy mechanic is the framing of a picture. This 
is a simple matter if the frame is already made and sup- 
plied with glass cut to size, but I propose to show you in 
this chapter how to do the work from the beginning. 

Not that I shall go into the making of the moulding 
from which the sides of the frame are cut. Few people 









Fig. 1. — Sections of Picture-frame Mouldings 



make their own mouldings nowadays. The manufacture 
of composition mouldings is a trade to itself, and the 
more desirable mouldings in oak, rosewood, ebony, etc., 
are seldom made nowadays with shaped plane cutters, 
but instead are produced in length and with ease on a 
machine known as the vertical spindle. This is a rapidly 
revolving spindle to which is clamped a cutter block 
containing four shaped cutters. The spindle revolves at 

82 



Making Picture Frames 

a very high speed, and strips of wood are guided past the 
cutters, which instantly remove the chips and produce 
the moulding before your eyes. All sorts of mouldings 
are obtainable at picture-frame supply shops, but take 
my advice and for your early efforts use solid stuff, neither 
veneered nor faced with plastic composition. Fig. 1 
illustrates in section a few of the many patterns of solid 
oak mouldings available. Flat gilt slips (Fig. 2) may be 
used with simple mouldings of the kinds shown. 

Equipment. — Your woodworking tools will be required 



Fig. 2. — Sections of Gilt Slips 
for Picture Frames 




Fig. 3. — Mitre Box 



in frame making, and, in addition, one or two special 
appliances for cutting and finishing the mitres at the 
frame corners. First these mitres are cut with a fine saw 
— tenon or dovetail — and are then faced up with a keen 
finely-set plane-iron, and for both of these jobs some 
special device for guiding the tools must be adopted. 
For sawing the mitres, either a mitre box or a mitre block 
is necessary — preferably the former. It is a trough 
(Fig. 3) across the top edges of which have been set out, 
with extreme accuracy, two intersecting angles, each of 45°, 
the lines being squared over on the sides as indicated. 
A saw is then run down in two directions so as to form 

83 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

slanting cuts, those on one side being, of course, in perfect 
alignment with those diagonally opposite. Any good 
odd stuff will do for the box, 1 in. being a suitable thick- 
ness. After the box has been in use for some time, the 
entrances to the saw cuts will become worn, to prevent 
which a set of four pairs of iron guides may be bought 
from a tool-dealer and screwed on. Very convenient 
forms of mitre boxes are sold, and, in general, the 
amateur is well advised not to make his first appliance of 
this kind. The mitre block (Fig. 4) is on the same 
principle as the box. and need not be particularly 
described ; it is an alternative to 
the other, but is not recommended 
in preference to it. 

Cutting the Moulding Lengths. 
— Before cutting up moulding, 
make a rough drawing of the frame 
Fig. 4.— Mitre Block o^" frames required (it generally 
saves time to make two or three 
frames together), and be absolutely certain as to your 
measurements. Remember that a frame has three dis- 
tinct sizes (as explained on p. 71) — the over-all, rebate and 
sight — and the picture and glass should be very slightly 
smaller each way than the rebate size of the frame. A 
little scheming will make for economy. A length of 
picture moulding is usually about 12 ft. To estimate the 
length of moulding required to frame a picture, add 
together the lengths of the four edges of the picture 
mount, add four times the width of the moulding, and 
allow a trifle for cutting. Thus, a 12 in. by 10 in. picture 
will require of 1| in. moulding : 

84 




Making Picture Frames 



12 in. 

12 in. 
10 in. 
10 in. 
6 in. (1| by 4) 




Fig. 5. — Mitre Shooting-board 



50 in. ; add to this 4 in., an ample allowance — total, 
4 ft. 6 in. 

Thus a 12 ft. length of moulding would make two 
frames of the rebate size above mentioned, and have a 
surplus of 3 ft. or 
slightly more. 

It is Easy to 
Cut the Moulding in 
the Wrong Place. 
— Moulding is ex- 
pensive, and if cut thoughtlessly will often be wasted. 
For cutting, hold it in box or block, and run down the 
fine saw, using it lightly. Cut a long side first, from it 
scratch off the length of the opposite member, and pro- 
ceed to cut that. There will be trifling differences in the 
lengths, I expect, but you can correct these when 
" shooting " or finishing. Do the shorter sides last and 
cut the pairs of sides for all the frames in hand before 
proceeding further. 

"Shooting" the Mitres. — The sawn edges or faces 
are sufficiently rough and inaccurate to prevent all four 
joints being of neat appearance when viewed from the 
front. They have yet to be planed on a mitre shooting- 
board, which is a device for holding the moulding in such 
a position that a plane lying on its side and guided by 

85 





Fig. 5a. — One-piece Frame with 
Ornamental Head 



Fig. 5b. — Jointed Frame 
with Bar 




Fig. 5C. — Mitred Frame with Fretwork Ornament 



86 



Making Picture Frames 

contact with the board may be " shot " across the sawn 
face and caused to remove the saw marks. The mitre 
shooting-board may be bought or can easily be made by a 
careful amateur from f in. to 1 in. stuff, well planed and 
perfectly parallel, by screwing a narrow board to a wide 
one, as in Fig. 5, and then screwing on an equilateral 
triangular piece (known as the fence) also as shown. The 
edges of the triangle will make angles of exactly 45 deg. 
with the front edge of the narrow board. The plane is 




Fig. 6. 



-Mitre Shoot In use ; showing also how to set the 
Fence with help of Set-square 



used on its side, edge of cutter towards the triangle {see 
plan of a different pattern of shooting-board, Fig. 6), 
and will need to be in perfect condition, the cutter being 
very keen and projecting only slightly. For shooting 
joints, the cutter needs to be sharpened like a chisel, 
quite square or straight {see p. 21). 

A still simpler mitre shoot which anybody can make 
for himself is shown in Fig. 8. It is a wide piece of wood, 
A, with one edge planed straight, screwed down upon 
it at an angle of 45° with the edge being a wooden 

87 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




strip — the fence. The angle 
line can be set out with set- 
square or bevel-square. 

To use a mitre shooting- 
board, lay the moulding 
down face uppermost and 
with its outer side (not the 
rebate side) in close contact 
with the fence, the sawn end 
just projecting over so that 
the plane, worked by the 
right hand while the left 
holds the moulding, will 

Fig. 7.— Small One-piece Frame for merely clean off the rough- 
staading or hanging 

ness and nothing more. Do 
both of the ends, of course, then proceed with the other 
pieces, and again compare and check the lengths of 
opposite pieces, placing the rebated edges together for the 
purpose, and effect any correction necessary. 

You will see in the tool catalogues quite a number of 
special tools 
and appliances 
for frame mak- 
ing. I can only 
say of them 
that the profes- 
sional frame- 
maker leaves 
most of them 
alone, but there 

is one that is Fig 7a. — Another simple One-piece Frame 

88 




Making Picture Frames 

coming more and more into popularity, and that is the 
mitre trimmer, cheap patterns of which are now available 
for amateurs' use. The sawn moulding is put into the 
trimmer, a lever pulled, and a keen chisel-edge takes a 
light cut over the mitre and effects a great saving in time 
as compared with the use of plane and shooting-board. 

Gluing and Cramping. — The mitred members are 
now to be joined together with glue and nails, and I will 
explain just one Avay, and that the simplest, in which this 
may be done. Four corner blocks (Fig. 9) for each frame 
will be wanted. They can 
be cut with a turn or com- 
pass saw from thick wood, 
or, more easily, sawn off 
from a circular piece of 
stuff 2 in, or more in dia- 
meter. Cut out the square 




Wfl 



. Fig. 8. — Simple form 

notch to receive the frame I ,' of Mitre Shoot 



corner, and cut one or two ■■ * 

string grooves with a saw as shown, finally cleaning the 
whole up with glasspaper to remove any roughness that 
might abrade the string used in tightening the joints. 
Build up the frame on a sheet of newspaper covering a 
bench or table, and put a block a (Fig. 10) at each corner. 
Pass a length of strong smooth string b round the whole 
two or three times, and tie the ends securely. Get four 
short sticks c, insert them between the strings and twist 
several times so as to tighten the string and puU the 
joints close together, as in Fig. 10. If they go right home 
and the work needs no further correction, loosen the string, 
remove the mouldings, coat the joint surfaces with good 

89 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




hot glue, replace, and again tighten up, leaving all night 
for the glue to get hard. Apply the glue smartly, and 
have the mouldings fairly warm in readiness. If the 
frame is of any size., strengthen each 
joint next day by inserting a fine nail or 
screw from the side {see Figs. 11 and 12), 
or by gluing in one or two pieces of veneer, 
as in Fig. 13, first making a saw-kerf, as 
at A, inserting glued veneer, as at b, and 
cleaning off when dry and hard. 

Plenty of special frame cramps are 
obtainable at dealers', but the one here described costs 
almost nothing and is quite efficient. 

Fitting Up a Frame. — Next we will proceed to fit 
up a frame with glass, picture, backboard and screw-eyes. 
You will probably get the glass cut to size, ^2 ^^' l^ss each 
way than the rebate size of the frame. But if you cut it 
yourself with diamond or v/heel glass-cutter, see that it is 



Fig. 9. — Corner 
Block for Picture- 
frame Cramp 




Fig. 9A. — One-piece Frame with Oval Opening 
90 



Making Picture Frames 

bedded perfectly flat upon a freshly-dusted table top 
on which a newspaper has been spread, and use the 
instrument with steady uniform pressure ; otherwise you 
are almost certain to crack the glass. All that the diamond 
or wheel-cutter does is to scratch the surface, and the glass, 
being very brittle and weak, easily parts at the scratched 




Fig. 10. — Cramping Picture Frame with Corner 
Blocks and Twisted String 

line. A fine file can often be converted into a cutter for 
common qualities of glass. It must be " glass-hard," and 
can be made so by heating in a fire or blowpipe flame to 
bright redness, and immediately plunging into cold water. 
It will now easily break, leaving extremely sharp edges 
which can be used exactly as a diamond. They wear 
rapidly, but a new cutting point is easily made by 
breaking off a further piece. 

91 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




Fig. 11. — Nailed Frame Joint 



The cut glass should be well cleaned, and personally I 

have always used methylated spirit, which dries quickly 

and leaves a bright polish ; but you can do quite well 

without it. 

The backboard of a frame 
is thin, rough-sawn and often 
faulty stuff, which can be 
bought in lengths of about 
6 ft. and in widths up to 
12 in. It will need to be 
sawn or cut with a knife or 
chisel to size. The rebate 
in the frame should be deep 
enough to take glass, pic- 
ture and backboard, but it 

often proves to be too shallow, in which case the 

margin of the backboard must be bevelled, as shown in 

the section (Fig. 14), to permit of the headless tacks or 

sprigs being inserted. 

I find that the best 

means of diiving in 

the sprigs is an old 

chisel used flat, so that 

its side near the point 

acts as a hammer, and 

I place a flat iron on 

the bench or table 

against the frame so that its weight is added to tliat 

of the frame and makes the nailing easier. 

Smoke and dust have a wonderful way of working 

into a frame, and it is always wise to cover the whole of 

92' 




Fig. 12. — Screwed 
Frame Joint 



Fig. 13.- Keyed 
Frame Joint 



Making Picture Frames 

the back with a sound piece of brown paper pasted on at 
its edges. To make assurance doubly sure, you can first 
of all paste on 2 in. strips of paper to hide the rebate 
and any joints in the backboard [see Fig. 15), afterwards 
covering all with one piece. 




Fig. 14. — Section of 

Fitted Picture Frame 

showing Bevelled 

Back Board secured 

with Sprigs 



C ,• 






Fig. 15. — Paper Strips pasted over 
Cracks to exclude Dust 



Screw-eyes or screw-rings need to be inserted to com- 
plete the job, first boring little holes for them, but making- 
certain that the screws do not come through to the front 
of the frame. Special cord for picture frames is sold, 
but I prefer wire, which is finer and neater. Brass wire 
'soon corrodes, but gilt copper wire will last a long time. 



93 



HOW TO USE METALWORKING TOOLS 

Bench and Vice. — Most metalworking demands a heavy 
bench or table, but perhaps you can make do with a 
small rigidly-built table with a 2-in. thick plank laid 
on it to receive the roughest of the wear. A vice of some 
sort is a very great convenience. You can get along 





Fig. 1. — Heavy form of Bench 
Vice with Parallel Action 



Fig. 2. — Table Vice, fixed by 
Turnscrevv from underneath 



without one, but not easily. The heavier and stronger 
th vice the better it will be, but a small vice is better 
than nothing. I give in Fig. 1 a diagram of a good solid 
type, and you can look up prices and pictures of other 
sorts in almost any tool catalogue. A leg vice that, 
besides being attached to the bench, actually rests on the 
floor, is an advantage, particularly when the bench is too 
slight to stand much heavy work. Fig. 2 shows a type 
often favoured by amateurs. 

94 



How to Use Metalworking Tools 

Hack Saws. — Immediately we start to do any metal- 
work, however rough and simple, we notice the particular 
need of saw and files. A hack saw is a very hard steel 
saw with fine teeth, and it is used for cutting brass, copper 
and even iron and steel. The saw itself is a blade held 
in tension by a frame, one of the simplest kinds being shown 
in Fig. 3. In this, after the blade is inserted, the winged 
nut on the outer end has to be turned until the saw is 




Fig. 3. — Cheap Cast-Iron Hack Saw Frame 




Fig. 4. — Sleeve-adjusting Hack Saw Frame 

taut. A saw that I have found very convenient is a 
cheap pattern, the length of which is adjustable (see 
Fig. 4). The two clamps are first placed in position, 
the saw threaded over the two pins which the clamps 
carry, and the wing nut then given two or three turns as 
may be necessary to make the blade tight. A better kind 
is adjusted entirely from the handle. You will note 
directly you get a hack saw into your hands that the 
blade can be set for cutting either downwards or upwards, 
or even sideways, either to the left or right. It is well to 
remember this, as the ability to use the saw sideways is 
often an advantage. Get the best saw blades you can 

95 



K -^"A 



Hot 



Hand Knife 






o a A 

Round Sq. 3 comer 

Fig. 5. — Sections through 
various Files 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

afford, and remember that as the saw cuts on the forward 

stroke, the teeth should point away from the handle. 
Do not apply too much pressure 
when using it, and push it neither 
too fast nor too slow. 

On copper and the various 
copper alloys for which a saw 
with twelve teeth to the inch 
is roughly correct, the speed of 
working should be about a double 
stroke every second, whereas on 
iron and steel, for which the 

teeth must be very much finer (about twenty to 

the inch), little more than a single stroke a second 

would be enough, but it is not only the speed that 

counts, the right method of holding the saw is 

a great factor. 

First see that 

the work is 

supported at the 

right height for 

you. It should 

be very slightly 

lower than your 

elbow when you 

stand up. The 

handle of the 

saw is gripped 

in the right Fig. 6,— Various Files : A, Flat ; B, Bellied 
, , 1 •! J.1 Flat ; C, Square ; D, Triangular or Three- 
hand, while the cornered; E, Round; F, Half-round; G, 
left hand holds Knife-edge 

96 




How to Use Metalworking Tools 

the front of the saw frame and not only assists it 
to and fro, but holds it down to its work. 

Files. — These are of various kinds, and you can spend 
a lot of money on them if you want to, but don't. Make 
do with as few tools as possible. In Figs. 5 and 6 I 
show a few of the shapes with their names. Files are 
made in three grades, known respectively as bastard. 




Fig. 7. — Position for Filing 

second-cut, and smooth, and, as a rule, the second and 
third kinds, from 6 in. to 9 in. long, best suit the require- 
ments of the boy mechanic. A convenient shape is the 
flat tapering, the three-cornered or triangular file always 
comes in useful, and perhaps the next best choice is a 
half-round. By the way, in Swiss files six different cuts 
H 97 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



can be obtained instead of the three in English ; and 
numbers three and four will be found generally useful. 

Some files are single-cut, and others double-cut, 
that is, in the second two series of teeth have 



been made in the file, 
other. The single - cut 
and alloys of a soft 




Fig. 9. — How File Is held for Heavy Work 




Fig. 10.— How File is held for Light Work 



one at an angle to the 
file is best for metals 

clinging nature, and the 
double - cut for 
iron, steel and 
the harder 
alloys, such as 
gunmetal, bronze 
and high quality 
brass . Fig. 7 
shows you the 
proper position. 
It is so easy to 
get a rounded 
surface when 
filing, the work 
rising up in the 

Fig. 11.— How File is held for Draw-filing middle and fall- 

ing away at the edges. The right hand wants to 
drop, the left hand to rise, and you have to correct 
this tendency, and put in a lot of practice before 
you can get a flat surface by filing. Figs. 7, 9 and 10 
show how to hold a file, whilst Figs. 8 and 11 show the 
positions of body and hands for di'aw-filing, the best 
method of dealing with long and narrow surfaces; 
the file should be chalked slightly and drawn over 
the work. 

98 




How to Use Metalworking Tools 

A test often given a mechanic when entering a new 
workshop for the first time is to file up a piece of steel 
flat and square. It is ever so much more difficult than 
you think. 

Scrapers. — I do not suppose that you will do much 
scraping of metals, but should you be a model engineer 
and attempt any serious work, you will have to know 
how to prepare two pieces of metal so that they will work 



Fig. 12.— Flat Scraper 



Fig. 13. — Triangular Scraper 



m 






Pig, 14.— Good and Bad Shape of Triangular and Flat Scrapers 
respectively 



over one another and yet be so close together as to resist 
the passage of steam under pressure. Just as filing 
smoothes a surface produced by the use of the saw, so 
the scraper makes still smoother a surface as it comes 
from the finest of files. There are countless shapes of 
scrapers, but a lot of useful work can be done with the flat- 
ended and triangular shapes (Figs. 12 and 13). The first 
has a slightly-rounded edge and can be bought ready 
for use or may be made from a worn-out file of the right 

99 




15. — How the Fiat 
Scraper is held 



WEOOE. 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

shape by first annealing it {see p. 77) and then on a wet 
grindstone grinding off the teeth, afterwards bringing up 
the edges on an oilstone. It must be made extremely 

hard by heating to bright 
redness and cooling in 
water. Scrapers are used 
with short forward 
strokes, not more than 
in., and the tool is 
grasped in the two hands. 
The angle at which the tools are used is shown in 
Fig. 14. 

Hammers. — I hardly suppose you will go to the ex- 
pense of a separate hammer 
for metalwork, but remember 
that "any old hammer" is 
sometimes a danger, both to 
you and the work. It may 
badly mark any metal on 
which it is used forcibly, and 
should it be used to propel 
a chisel or a punch, it might 
easily glance and bruise your 
hand. Three engineers' ham- 
mers are shown in Figs. 17 to 
19. Do you know the right 
way of securing the head to 
the shaft or handle ? With a 
really sharp knife, lightly pare the wood to the correct 
shape until head and handle are a tight fit. Separate 
them, and make a saw-cut down the handle across the 




Saw- CUT 




HAMM&R, SHAFT 



Fig. 16. — Wedging Hammer 
Head on Shaft 

(Hammer shown is the Woodworker's 
"London" or "Exeter" Pattern) 



JOO 



How to Use Metalworking Tools 



greatest width (see Fig. 16). Drive the shaft into the 
head again, and have ready a wedge of hard wood, and 
drive this into the saw-cut. Some people use an iron 
wedge, which holds very well for a time, but ultimately 
rusts, and then the head is liable to fall off. Soaking a 
loose hammer head, with the shaft in position, in water 
tightens the head. 






Fig. 17.— Ball-paned 
Hammer 



Fig. 18. — Cross-paned 
Hammer 



Fig. 19.— Straight- 
paned Hammer 



Chisels. — Expert mechanics can do a great deal on 
iron and steel with a hammer and chisel, and you will 
find it worth while to emulate them to some extent. A 
small casting, for example, that you may be working up 
will probably need grooves and recesses cut in it which 
would mean a lot of troublesome work with a file. There 
are flat chisels (Fig. 20), straight-edge chisels, wide and 
narrow, cross-cut chisels, and diamond-point chisels 
(Fig, 21), and for cutting grooves the last-named will 
be useful. The chisel edge will not have the keenness 
of a wood chisel — 30° for brass and copper, 45° to 50° 

lOI 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



for most iron and mild steel, and 65° for hard steel. You 
remember that a plane-iron is slightly rounded at the 
corners to prevent its digging into the wood. Well, a 
metalworker's chisel of any width is treated in just the 
same way {see A, Fig. 20). With such a chisel less metal 
is cut at a time certainly, but the work is easier. 

Drills. — For making holes in metal there are two 
distinct methods. Iron and steel can be made red hot 
and holes then punched in. That is the blacksmith's 



n 



/C=^ 



(<FvS 



Fig. 20. — Flat Chisel Fig. 21. — Diamond-point Chisel 

method. The engineer's method is generally to drill the 
hole, and the boy mechanic will find one or at most two 
types of drill bit enough for his purpose. The simplest is 
the flat or diamond-pointed drill (Fig. 22), A more 
efficient type is the twist drill (Fig. 23) obtainable in 
scores of different sizes, but beware of applying great 
pressure to the small ones as they are easily broken, for 
which reason at first it is better to use the shorter kind. 
These twist drills work very well on iron and steel and 
hard metals generally, but not so well in brass, in which 



I02 



How to Use Metalworking Tools 

there is always the risk of the drill seizing and breaking 
unless it is frequently lifted out and the hole cleared. 
Better than the twist drill for brass is the straight- 
fluted drill (Fig. 24), but in this the waste does not 
automatically rise out of the hole, and frequent removal 
is necessary. 

There must be some means of rotating the drill bit, 
and in the case of the small sizes an archimedean drill 
(described on p. 165) is the most handy, but a much more 
rapid tool is a hand-drill or a geared breast-drill, or even 
the familiar brace. But remember not to apply a great 



Fig. 23.— Twist Drill 




Fig. 22.— Flat Drill 



Fig. 24.— Straight-fluted Drill 



deal of pressure, especially in drilling holes in sheet metal, 
more particularly with twist bits, which have a way of 
screwing themselves through the metal in a moment. 
As a start for the point of a drill it is usual to make a 
light dent with hammer and centre-punch. In the 
ordinary way brass may be drilled twice as fast as mild 
steel and cast iron. 

The right lubricant makes all the difference in drilling 
metal. It means better work and assists in keeping the 
drill in order {see pp. 75 to 80). 

103 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

A hole that is slightly undersized is enlarged, not by 
means of another drill, but by means of what is called a 
reamer (Fig. 25). A rough reamer for holes in thin plate 
stuff is the tang of a file, or even a tapering file itself. 
Special tools are sold for the purpose, and should you ever 



Fig. 25. — ^Reamer or Broach tor use in Brace 
or Hand-drill 

want one you will find a variety illustrated in almost any 
tool catalogue, but for simple work in bent iron, for 
example, a file tang is all you will need. 

The Lathe. — The metalworker's most useful tool is a 
lathe, but of such importance is it that I propose to have 
it treated by my friend Mr. A. Millward in a separate 
chapter. 



104 




FILING AT THE VICE 

[Work IS slightly too lo-w for comfort and efficiency) 



GLUE : HOW TO PREPARE AND USE IT 

Not many people^ except craftsmen, know how to use 
glue. They seldom prepare it in the proper manner, and 
generally use it far too thick, not hot enough, and too 
generously. The strongest glue joint contains only a 
small amount of glue, and this exists in the form of a thin, 
tough film in intimate contact with both of the pieces that 
are joined together. 

There are three things to remember : get the best 
glue, have the wood properly prepared to receive it, and 
do the work in a warm atmosphere. Very strong glue is 
made by mixing equal parts of Scotch and French. Wrap 
the pieces in a piece of sacking or in plenty of newspaper, 
and break them to fragments with a hammer. Put them 
into a gallipot or into the inner vessel of a gluepot, and 
pour in enough water to cover. After the lapse of several 
hours the glue will have swollen up and have absorbed all 
or the greater part of the water, any surplus of which 
should be drained off. Put the gallipot into a saucepan 
containing enough water to reach half-way up the outside 
of the pot, or, if you are using a proper gluepot, don't 
forget to pour some water into the outer vessel. 

I do not propose to take up space by describing 
gluepots and brushes. You can get a small glue- 
kettle (Fig. 1) quite cheaply (it is a double kettle, as 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




in the section, Fig. 2, the outer one for water and the inner 
for glue), and a suitable brush for a trifle. Some people 
prefer to make their own brush by hammering out the 
end of a piece of cane {see Fig. 3). Over a gentle flame 

slowly raise the glue to 
boiling point, and main- 
tain it at this for 
about half an hour. To 
test it, take a brushful, 
and note whether the 
fluid runs off it like 
water, or almost as 
thickly as treacle ; if the 
former, continue the boiling ; if the latter, add some 
perfectly boiling water. Continue the boiling for a 
minute or so and try the consistency again. When it is 
just right the glue should fall easily from the brush and 
not be so thick as to break up into drops. 

If you are in a great hurry, you will probably be 
tempted to put the gallipot in an oven or to boil up the 
glue in an old saucepan in direct contact with the flame 
of the stove, but if you do so you run a grave risk of over- 
heating the glue and ruining its strength. The object 
of using the proper gluepot or of immersing the gallipot 



Fiji. 1.— Double- 
saucepan Glue- 
pot 



Fig. 2.— Section 
through Glue- 
pot 




Fig. 3. — Glue-brush made by hammering end of piece of Cane 



in water is to ensure that the glue is not heated to a 
temperature exceeding that of boiling water. 

io6 



Glue: How to Prepare and Use It 

The glue as prepared will be ready for immediate 
use, or, if preferred, can be allowed to cool into a jelly, 
and can then be quickly melted at any time as required. 
But after a few re-meltings its strength becomes impover- 
ished, and it is wise to make up some fresh. If put aside in 
a damp place it will become mouldy, and then on no 
account should it be used. 

Making: a Glued Joint. — Now we come to the right 
way of using the glue. The two surfaces that are to be 
joined should be of a good fit one with the other. They 
must be clean, as even a touch of grease prevents the 
glue from taking a firm hold. They must be warm, as 
glue applied to a cold surface is suddenly chilled and half 
spoilt. I generally contrive to do a small gluing job in 
front of the fire. I have the glue boiling hot, I have 
previously taken care to leave the work somewhere near 
the fire so as to be gently but thoroughly warmed, and 
then, just before applying the glue, I hold the surfaces 
about a foot away from the fire, and when the work be- 
comes really warm I apply a thin layer of glue to both 
pieces, and at once bring them into contact one with the 
other. 

The next point is of great importance. As I have 
already said, the glue is required in a thin film only, and 
we can only ensure this by squeezing out the surplus. 
With two flat surfaces this is easily done by sliding one 
on the other a few times, and then when the glue starts 
to grip the two together bringing the two pieces into 
their proper position ; if possible, put the work away 
under pressure for a whole day at least for the glue to get 
hard. In hundreds of cases the work is of such a shape 

107 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

that sliding one piece on the other is quite out of the 
question, and in all such cases we have to exercise more 
care in applying the glue. Whilst every spot must be 
covered, only a thin coat is required, and the two pieces 
must be brought together under pressure. Everybody 
will have his own way of producing that pressure, one of 
the easiest being to place the work between two flat boards 
and put a heavy weight over the top. A pile of books is 
an excellent weight if nothing better is available. A good 




Fig. 4. — Wedge-cramp on Bench-top, etc., for Frame or other article 

clamp is made with rope on the principle of the picture- 
frame cramp illustrated on p. 91. Fig. 5, on opposite page, 
shows how it may be arranged, and is as self-explanatory 
as the wedge-cramp illustrated by Fig. 4, in which figure 
the pair of folding wedges should be noted. 

There are some woods that are very porous, and they 
tend to soak up the glue and prevent a satisfactory joint 
being made. In such cases put a brushful or two of 
glue into a pot, pour on a little boiling water, mix up 
thoroughly, and brush this glue size over the surfaces 
that are to be glued. Allow twelve hours to dry, and 
then proceed in the ordinary way already described. 

io8 



Glue: How to Prepare and Use It 

Special Glues. — With two more hints the subject of 
gluing may be dismissed. For small jobs I never go to the 
trouble of preparing glue. It is so much more simple 
and easy to use seccotine, which can be squeezed from its 
collapsible tube in just the exact quantity required, but 
simply because this is a cold glue do not neglect to have 
your work thoroughly warmed, this making a great 
difference to the strength of the joint. 

For some jobs ordinary glue would not long be satis- 
factory. It does not 
matter how old glue 
may be, it is always 
influenced by moisture. 
That is why glue is 
quite useless in any 
outdoor woodwork. The 
joints simply fall apart. 
Sometimes, though, it is 
very convenient to use 
glue for small fancy 
work which may occa- 
sionally run the risk of being wetted, or which may 
have to stand the effects of a moist atmosphere. For- 
tunately there is a most useful chemical, bichromate of 
potash, obtainable from an oilshop or chemist in the form 
of orange-red crystals, which can be added to our glue to 
make it waterproof. The curious thing is that this glue 
to which the bichromate has been added becomes water- 
proof only when exposed to the action of light, and 
therefore after it is prepared it must be kept in a dark 
place (it comes to the same thing if it is kept in a stone- 

log 




Fig. 5. — Rope-cramp 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

ware or black glass bottle, corked or stoppered) until it 
is wanted. The proportion of bichromate to be added to 
the glue is not of very great importance. First of all 
prepare the glue in the ordinary way, and while it is hot 
add, say, | oz. of the chemical for every 3 oz. or 4 oz. 
or so of cake glue originally used. The chemical is 
poisonous, and should not be touched by the hands, as 
it affects the skin. 

I think that seccotine is the best liquid glue that I 
have tried, but as I am fully aware that my readers are 
the sort that want to make everything for themselves, I 
give here a recipe for a reliable cold liquid glue. Break 
2 oz. of Scotch glue into fragments, and place in a bottle 
containing 8 oz. of ordinary commercial acetic acid, and 
1 oz. of water. In due course the glue will swell up, and 
the bottle can then be stood in a saucepan of warm water, 
and very gently heated until the glue is actually melted. 
Add 1| parts more of acetic acid, continue the gentle 
warming for a few minutes and allow to cool. 



no 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES AND HOW TO 
MAKE THEM 

On another page I explain the difference between a 
primary battery and a secondary battery (accumulator), 
and I now propose to show you how to make two or 
three kinds of batteries, one suitable for ringing bells and 
very occasional flashing of a miniature lamp, another 
adapted for electro-plating, and a third, of the " dry " 
portable kind. A " battery " is really two or more 
" cells," but the first term is commonly used for a single 
cell as well. 

Leclanche Cells. — There are some batteries which 
do not pay to make. The ordinary bell-ringing Leclanche 
(Fig. 1), for example, is rarely made at home, because all 
its parts are so cheaply bought. It consists of a jar 
(Fig. 2), a zinc rod (Fig. 3), connected to which is an in- 
sulated wire, and a charged porous pot (Fig. 4). These 
parts are assembled as in Fig. 1, and the space between 
porous pot and jar is filled up to the lower level of the 
black part with a solution of sal-ammoniac powder in 
plain water. 1-pint, 2 -pint, or 3-pint cells are usually 
made, and will require respectively 3 oz., 5 oz., and 10 oz. 
of sal-ammoniac. An ounce more or less does not matter 
much. The two elements — there are always two distinct 
metals in a cell, carbon, in this sense, being a metal — are 

III 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

zinc and carbon. The zinc rod you can see in the illus- 
trations. The carbon is in the porous earthenware pot 
into which it is packed with a mixture of granulated 
peroxide of manganese and carbon, there being holes at 
the top for the escape of the gas evolved in use. The tops 
of the jar, zinc rod and porous pot are coated with bitumen, 
pitch, or brunswick black, as shown, and often, too, they 
are further treated with hot paraffin wax, the object being 
to prevent the crystals in the solution gradually creeping 
up and corroding the connections. 

Old zincs from Leclanche cells need treatment to make 
them as good as new. The particular treatment is amalga- 
mation with mercury, the purpose of which is to stop 
internal local action when the cell is supposed to be at 
rest. The impurities in the zinc set up between them- 
selves electrical action — that is, scores or hundreds of 
microscopic cells or batteries are formed — which in course 
of time runs down the cell. So, whenever a cell contains 
zinc rods or plates — and many cells do — it is wise to keep 
them well amalgamated, the method of doing which is to 
dip the zincs in dilute sulphuric acid to make them clean 
and bright, swill with water, put them in a dish, and then 
rub mercury over them with some tow fastened on a stick. 
Mercury instantly alloys or amalgamates with the clean 
zinc. Don't touch the mercury with the fingers and avoid 
inhaling its vapour. 

The making of the porous pot is out of the question, 
but there is a good type of Leclanche cell that has a 
sack instead of a pot, and you can make this up for your- 
self if you like. Its size will depend on that of the jar 
you propose to use. A 3-lb. jam-jar before me as I write 

112 



Electric Batteries 



would take a sack 5 in. high, and not much more than 2 in. 
or 2| in. in diameter. Adopting the second dimension, 
you will need a piece of thin, loosely-woven canvas, not 
cloth, about 8 J in. square, and a disc of the same material 
to form the bottom of the sack. Make the square piece 
into a cylinder (Fig. 5) and see that the seam is strongly 




Fig. 4. — Carbon and 
Porous Pot 




Fig. 3. — Zinc Rod 



Fig. 2.— Jar of Cell 



1^3 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



stitched. The carbon rod or plate must be bought, and 
if it has a terminal screw attached to it all the better ; 
if not, get some old lead and fine sand. Make a mould for 
a head to the carbon and place a terminal and the carbon 
rod in such a position that when the lead is melted (in 
an old iron shovel over a glowing fire) and poured in, it 
will form a head and connect the screw 
to the carbon. Or a reader who under- 
stands electro-plating could deposit elec- 
trically a good thick coat of copper on 
the carbon and solder the terminal to it 
with tinmen's solder. In either case, on 
completion, coat the top of the carbon 
and everything up to the bottom of the 
terminal with brunswick black or paraffin 
wax. 

For packing the carbon in the sack, 
you will need some granulated carbon 
and manganese peroxide as fine as rice, 
but not containing dust. You can get 
them from dealers in electrical sundries. 
Mix together equal parts of each, and 
pack lightly into the sack after inserting the carbon. 
Tuck in the canvas and tie neatly at the top after 
packing in as much as the sack will take, but see that 
the terminal is left projecting (Fig. 5). Coat the tied 
end of the sack with brunswick black. 

The best form of zinc element for this cell is an amal- 
gamated plate bent to cylindrical shape. For a jam-jar 
measuring inside nearly 4 in. in diameter by about 6 in. 
high, the plate could be 5 in. or 6 in. high and 9 in. long 

114 




Fig. 5. — Carbon 

and Charged Sack 

of Sack 

Leclanche Cell 



Electric Batteries 

(see pattern. Fig. 6), bent to form an incomplete cylinder 
3 in. in diameter. A copper wire should be soldered to 
the connecting lug, and the zinc will need to be amalga- 
mated as already described. The lug is bent over to form 
a hook so that the zinc hangs on the glass jar and does not 
touch the bottom. Actual dimensions are of small im- 
portance, and will depend upon those of the jar used. 
Made to the dimensions here suggested, there will be a 
clearance of I in. between sack and circular zinc, and as it 
is really important that this be maintained, I suggest 
you put one or two thick 
rubber rings around the sack 
to prevent contact. All being 
ready, charge the battery with 
a solution of about 6 oz. or 
7 oz. of sal-ammoniac in rain 
water or distilled water, leave Fig. 6.— Pattern for Cylindrical 
for a few hours, and the cell ^'"'^ °^ ^^""^ Lcclanche Cell 
is ready for use. It will, if well made, yield a current 
at 1'6 volt, and two such cells side by side, with 
the zinc of one connected straight to the carbon of the 
other, will give a current at 3*2 volts and would easily ring 
a bell or two, or occasionally glow a miniature lamp of 
approximately the same voltage ; if more than one lamp 
is used connect them up on the parallel system, by bridge 
wires between two main conductors (see p. 47). 

A Plater's Battery. — We will next consider an al- 
together different type of battery or cell from the above. 
For electrical experiments and for plating with gold, 
silver, copper, etc., you require a battery that will give a 
current for quite a time without running down. The 

lis 




Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

Leclanche battery, either wet or dry, is useless for such 
work, and instead a Bunsen, Daniell or a WoUaston 
battery should be used. I could tell you how to make 
either the first or second, but there would not be much 
purpose in doing so, as you would have to buy all the 
parts, and there would be very little " making " in the job 
of putting the battery together. I show you in Fig. 7 
what a Bunsen cell looks like. First of all, there is a glass 
or stoneware jar d, in which is a zinc cylinder c, to which 
one of the terminal screws is attached. The zinc forms 
one pole of the battery. Inside the zinc cylinder is a 
porous pot B, and inside this again is a square or rect- 
angular rod of carbon which forms the other pole and 
carries a terminal screw as shown. The zinc cylinder is 
kept well amalgamated by the method I have already 
described, and the battery is charged by pouring nitric 
acid into the porous pot until about three-quarters full, 
while the space between that pot and the outer stoneware 
or glass jar needs to be filled with a mixture made by 
pouring one volume of sulphuric acid into nine parts of 
svater. Note the caution : do not pour the water into 
the acid, or you may be hurt by the spurting acid. 

What is known as a French Bunsen cell has a sulphuric 
acid mixture in the porous pot as well as in the outer 
vessel, and is to be preferred to the other type because 
it is free from the noxious fumes generally associated with 
the use of nitric acid. For all sorts of small plating jobs, 
especially when the conducting wires are fine, and therefore 
offer a high resistance, either of these forms of the Bunsen 
cell is first-rate, but as I have said, you can scarcely 
" make " it ; you buy it all ready for use. 

ii6 



Electric Batteries 



Still better for small gold- and silver-plating jobs is the 
Daniell battery, which provides a greater volume of current 
at a lower pressure. This, again, is a battery which you 
buy ready made. It is simply a round glass jar containing 
a cylindrical copper plate, inside which is a porous pot 





Fig. 8.— Bottle Bichromate Cell 



Fig. 7. — Elevation of a 
usual form of Bunsen Cell 



containing a zinc rod. In 

the porous pot is a mixture 

of sulphuric acid and water 

(certain other solutions could 

be used), and outside the porous pot is a saturated solution 

of copper sulphate. 

The bottle bichromate cell or Grenet's flask (Fig. 8) 
has a zinc plate, which can be lifted clear of the solution, 
between two carbon plates. The solution consists of 
1 pint of hot distilled water or rain water and 3 oz. of 
bichromate of potash, to which is added, drop by drop, 
3 oz. of strong sulphuric acid. The solution must become 

117 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



cold before use. This is a powerful cell, but is best bought 
ready made. 

The best type of plating battery to be made by the 
boy himself at home is a copper-zinc couple of the Wollaston 

type. It is an inter- 
esting job to make a 
cell or battery of this 
kind, and quite an easy 
one, too. The idea is 
to support in an acid 
solution a piece of zinc 
with a piece of copper 
on each side of it. 
First look out some 
jars that will serve 
your purpose — jam- 
jars of stoneware or 
glass or specially 
bought porcelain jars. 
Two bridge-pieces of 
wood cut to shape, 
shown in Fig. 9, will be 
wanted to go across the 
top of each jar. Two 
cells will give enough 
pressure for ordinary small jobs, so four bridge-pieces will be 
required. Get from a plumber or from an electrical dealer 
two pieces of rolled zinc (cast zinc is impure and liable to 
break into holes when used). The recess shown in the 
bridge-piece (Fig. 9) is the exact width of the zinc plate, 
while its depth should be not quite half the thickness of 

ii8 




Fig. 10.- 



-Zinc Element clamped between 
two Bridge-pieces 



Electric Batteries 



the plate, so that when the latter is put in the recess and 
the other bridge-piece put in place, as in Fig. 10, two 
screws can pass through the wood clear of the plate and 
clamp it in position. But before this is done both wood 
and zinc must be treated, the former to cause it to resist 
the action of any acid 
that may reach it and 
to stop the creeping up 
of any chemicals, and 
the latter to preserve 
it from local action. 
The wood should be 
soaked in paraffin wax 
or in candle wax, and 
the plate should be 
thoroughly amalga- 
mated with mercury, 
as already explained. 

For each cell there 
must now be obtained 
two copper plates. It 
does not matter how 
thick they are, but 
the area of each one 
ought to be greater than that of the zinc which will 
come between them. The inner surfaces (those that 
will come opposite the zinc) should be scored over 
with a file or other tool, and small holes to receive 
screws should be bored at their top ends so that they 
may next be attached to the wood exactly as shown in 
Fig. 11, using brass or copper screws sufficiently short to 

119 




Fig. 11. — Copper Elements and Zinc 

attached to Bridge-pieces of 

Wollaston Cell 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

avoid touching the zinc plate. If you like you can get special 
clamps which will connect together the copper plates and 
grip them to the bridge and obviate the use of screws. 
Two terminals, as shown, are essential. If the arrange- 
ment is now placed in the vessel, and a mixture of one 
part of sulphuric acid and ten parts of water poured in, 
the cell will immediately give current, and if you arrange 
some means of propping the plates up so that only part 
of them is immersed in the acid you can regulate the 
current yield and adapt it to your requirements. You 
could do this simply by having two or three pairs of 
different sized blocks of wood well soaked in paraffin wax 
to place on the edge of the jar to support the bridge-piece. 
As already explained, you get a higher pressure if you 
connect the cells in series — that is, the coppers of one to 
the zinc of the other, and the remaining plates to the work. 
But for plating purposes great pressure is seldom neces- 
sary, and a good volume of current is more desirable, to 
obtain which you connect the cells in parallel, that is, 
any two like poles together, the other plates joining up 
to the circuit or work as before. 

I show this particular type of battery because it is 
extremely easy to make, and the materials are readily 
obtained ; but I do not profess that it is an ideal device. 
It needs to be carefully managed, and, in particular, the 
plates should not be left immersed in the acid when not 
in use. It is worth while, on removing them from the 
acid, to rinse them thoroughly under the tap and lay them 
aside until required. Then, too, the zincs must be kept 
well amalgamated, which is a simple enough job, but 
involves the use of mercury. In the instructions I give 

1 20 



Electric Batteries 



on page 112 for amalgamating zincs, I explain that the 
metal must be cleaned with dilute acid, but where this 
is inconvenient hot strong soda water can be used in- 
stead, although the acid is preferable. When the dilute 
acid in the cell appears to have a blackening effect upon 
the plates and there is a hissing noise, local action is exces- 
sive, and it is a sign that re-amalgamation is necessary. 



Flash-lamp Batteries. 

terest is taken in the 
tiny batteries used 
in torches and flash- 
lamps. How often 
am I asked whether 
they can be re- 
charged ! They can- 
not. Neither do I 
think they can be use- 
fully made at home 
by the boy mechanic, 
inasmuch as the 



I know what a great in- 





Fig. 12. — Section through 

a Three - cell 4^ - volt 

Flash-lamp Battery 



Fig. 13. — Sec- 
tion through one 
of the cells of 
the Flash-lamp 
Battery 



work would scarcely pay unless attempted in quan- 
tity. A flash-lamp battery is actually a moist Le- 
clanche ; when of the flat type it consists of three little 
cells, each 1| volts, connected in series, the total pressure 
being, therefore, 4| volts. A section through the battery 
is given by Fig. 12, in which a is one of the cells, b is a 
piece of waxed card, which insulates one cell from the 
other, c is the wire connecting the carbon of one cell to 
the zinc case of the next, and d is the terminal (a piece 
of flat brass) from the zinc element, the other terminal — 
from the carbon — also projecting through the top, but 

121 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

being unlettered in the diagram. Between the three 
little cells and the outside container is fine sawdust or 
cotton wool E, while f is a sealing of pitch, and G is a 
paper wrapping. 

Taking one of the three little cells separately, it con- 
sists of a cylinder of very thin zinc a (Fig. 13) lined with 
blotting-paper b, at the bottom of which is a disc of card c. 
Standing on the disc is a carbon rod d over the top end 
of which has been forced a brass cap e to allow of a wire 
being soldered on. Active chemical material is packed 
in between the carbon rod and the blotting-paper lining, 
as at F. The blotting-paper is turned in at the top {see 
h), and each cell is finished off with a seal j of pitch or 
of pitch mixed with resin. 

In course of making, the blotting-paper lining to the 
zinc cylinder has been saturated with a solution made by 
mixing 2f oz. of sal-ammoniac, f oz. of zinc chloride, 
I oz. of glycerine, and 7 oz. of water that has been boiled. 
The chemical f surrounding the little carbon rod consists 
of some such mixture as 9 parts of finely-powdered carbon 
and 4 parts of manganese dioxide. These powders must 
be thoroughly well mixed, and then dampened with a 
similar solution to that already used, but note that it 
contains less sal-ammoniac, the proportions being 1 oz. 
of the last-named, 1 oz. of zinc chloride, I oz. of glycerine, 
and 7 oz. of water. It is found that the proportion of 
this solution used in relation to the powder exercises a 
great influence on the success or failure of the battery. 
Not enough should be used to make the powder into a 
paste. The condition has been well described as a " moist 
powder, crumblingly damp." 

122 



Electric Batteries 

There has been a tremendous amount of experimenting 
in the manufacture of these flash-lamp batteries, and all 
sorts of different mixtures have been tried. One of the 
best of them is said to be a mixture of 2 parts of carbon, 
2 of plumbago or pure graphite (pure blacklead), and 3 
parts of manganese dioxide, all in fine powder, the 
dampening mixture consisting of 1| oz. of sal-ammoniac, 
2 oz. of zinc chloride, 1| oz. of glycerine, and 7 oz. of 
water. 

Honestly, I do not think you will get as good results 
with home-made flash-lamp batteries as with those you 
buy ready made ; but I know also that many of you will 
try to make them, so I feel compelled to add a few prac- 
tical notes on the method of making up the cells. For 
making the zinc cylinders, get the lightest, thinnest zinc 
you can, and cut it into pieces measuring 2f in. by 2^ in. 
Wrap them round a round piece of wood to form cylinders, 
and thoroughly well solder the seam, afterwards cutting 
discs to make bottoms for the cylinders, and soldering 
these in place from the outside. Or, to avoid the soldering 
in of the discs, you can place the open-ended cylinders on 
a tray and pour in a |-in. layer of marine glue or pitch. 
Cut pieces of blotting-paper measuring 7 1 in. long by 2 j^n. 
wide, and roll round a ruler to form a cylinder which will 
tightly fit the zinc cylinder already made, allowing a 
little of the blotting-paper to turn in and form a support 
for a cardboard disc, which should be pushed into the 
blotting-paper cylinder to form a bottom. Pour in the 
first of the exciting mixtures given above, allow to remain 
for fifteen minutes, pour out, and then place on end to 
drain for about an hour and an half. The carbon pencils 

123 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

must be tightly pushed into little brass caps. The tops 
with their caps should be stood in molten paraffin wax 
or candle wax for the purpose already explained. Place 
the carbon rod in the centre of the little cell, and having 
the black mixture moistened to the proper consistency, 
ram it tightly round the carbon by means of a piece of 
tubing. The mixture should stop short half an inch 
from the top of the carbon, and the blotting-paper be 
folded in over it. It is most important to avoid any 
little bridge of black mixture extending directly from the 
zinc cylinder to the carbon rod, as such a bridge would 
short-circuit the cell and very rapidly exhaust it. Leave 
the mixture time to get a trifle drier, and then seal with 
some pitch, afterwards melting a hole through the pitch 
with a hot wire to allow of the escape of the gases which 
are evolved later. The cells are connected together with 
No. 24 gauge wire, and the terminals are of thin spring 
brass, all soldered on. Three cells are laid side by side, 
connected up as described, partition slips of waxed paper 
put between them to prevent the zincs touching each 
other, and the whole wrapped round with brown paper, 
the top being packed with wadding or sawdust to prevent 
movement, and this being sealed over with pitch, which 
makes all secure. For the sake of appearance the cells 
are finally wrapped round with black paper. 



124 



SOLDERING 

Most people associate mechanics with soldering, and 
suppose that a boy who is handy with tools must, of ne- 
cessity, know how to use a " soldering iron." Soldering 
looks so easy. All you do is to put a hot iron on the 
kettle spout, touch it with a stick of solder, and the leak 
is mended. That's what they think. 

Well, we don't use a " soldering iron " at all, and in 
the writer's humble opinion, soldering is not easy. Of 
course, when you have learned the right temperature for 
the soldering bit, how to clean the work, and how to make 
that annoying bead of solder flow where you want it to, 
the process has become easy enough. But I rather think 
you will find your first soldering job to be something 
short of perfection. On the other hand, you may have 
beginner's luck ! 

Solder. — Soldering consists in uniting two pieces of 
metal by means of an alloy melted by heat. An alloy is 
a mixture of two or more metals, and it is found that the 
best and cheapest solder for most of the metals in ordinary 
use — brass, copper, zinc and iron — is a mixture of tin and 
lead. As most boys will be interested in soldering such 
everyday metals as tin plate (which is steel coated with 
tin), brass, and copper, we may say that for all these an 
alloy made by melting 2 parts of tin with 1 of lead makes 

125 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

an excellent solder. In asking at the shop for such a 
solder as this, say that you want " tinman's fine solder." 
However, if you will be guided by me, you will not, at 
8rst, purchase your solder in the ordinary form of sticks 
such as you have seen used by the tinker and candle- 
stick maker. There is a special preparation of finely- 
powdered solder, known as " Tinol," and nothing easier 
for the use of the boy mechanic has ever been introduced. 
On opening the flat tin in which the substance is put up, 
you find it to consist of a wet paste, and a little of this 
can be taken up on the point of a penknife or wooden 
stick and placed exactly where it is required. It has one 
great advantage ; all soldering requires the use of a 
" flux," which keeps the metal chemically clean when it 
becomes heated. When ordinary stick solder is used the 
flux has to be separately applied. In " Tinol." how- 
ever, the flux is already mixed with the solder, and a very 
excellent flux it is. 

Should you particularly wish to use stick solder, you 
will need to prepare a separate flux by placing some pure 
hydrochloric acid (known also as muriatic acid) in a jam- 
pot, and adding some nice clean cuttings of new sheet 
zinc — just a few at first and then more until you notice 
that, although there is some zinc left at the bottom of 
the jar the acid has ceased to bubble up. It is important 
to see that what appears to be superfluous zinc is left in 
the liquid. Leave it overnight, and then pour off the 
liquid into a glass jar having a good wide mouth. This 
liquid is now a solution of chloride of zinc, and workmen 
know it as " killed spirit." For applying this flux to 
the metal you can make quite an excellent brush by 

126 



Soldering 



Fig. 1. — Pointed Soldering Bit 



taking a short piece of cane and hammering one end of 
it until the fibres become like bristles. For fine work the 
flux can be applied with a piece of galvanised wire or 
with a knitting needle. 

As with solders, so with fluxes. I recommend you to 
use a flux already made, and one of the best obtainable 
is " Fluxite," a paste flux put up in flat tins ; but, as 
already stated, if you decide for the easiest possible pro- 
cess, you will employ " Tinol," and leave stick solder and 
separate fluxes to 

a later date. That — ^ ^™_^-: -~>n 

is all you need to 
know about the 
materials. Now 
for the tools. 

The Bit.— 
People talk 
glibly of a solder- 
ing " iron," when 
they ought to 
speak of a sol- 
dering "copper." Workmen know it as the soldering 
"bit." Figs. 1 to 3 show the three forms in which it 
is generally obtainable, and the one I prefer whenever 
it can be used is the hatchet-shape shown last. By the 
way, the "Tinol" firm sells a telescopic bit of the 
hatchet shape which will answer most small requirements. 
The bit is simply an iron rod with a shaped piece of 
copper at one end and a handle, generally of wood, 
at the other {see Fig. 4). The "Fluxite" firm also have 
a good collapsible bit {see Fig. 4a). 

127 




Bit for Internal Soldering, etc. 



Fig. 3. — Hatchet Soldering Bit 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

A bit must be heated to a temperature slightly higher 
than that at which the solder will melt, and the young 
mechanic sometimes has difficulty in finding just the right 
source of heat. The kitchen fire fouls the bit ; the heat 
of the gas-ring is not concentrated enough and the bit 
takes too long to get hot. The flame of a spirit lamp can 
be used for heating the bit, but this again is a trifle slow. 
If you have what is known as a bunsen burner (Fig. 5) 
you might make that serve. An incandescent gas burner 
is really a bunsen burner, and if you possess one of the 




Fig. 4. — Telescopic Bit 




SCR£VVE.D JOINTS' 
Fig. 4a.— Collapsible Bit 



E^ 



old-fashioned upright kind, you could take off the mantle 
together with its prop, turn the gas on full, light up, and 
then have a fair-sized smokeless flame in which, if you are 
ingenious, you can support the copper bit while it is 
heating, but we fear that at the best it will be a very in- 
convenient method. The tool shops sell special stoves 
for heating bits, some of them burning gas, and others of 
them charcoal, but not many amateur solderers would 
dream of buying one. Fortunately many readers will 
have already in their house a quite excellent stove for the 
purpose, and until thev read of the fact in this place will 

128 



Soldering 



be unaware of it. Hundreds of thousands of gas-heated 
laundry irons are now in use, and if the ladies of your 
establishment possess one, do your best to borrow it 
when you mean business in the soldering line. In the 
writer's experience, one of these irons has proved a 
most excellent heating device. Connect up the iron by 
means of a flexible tube to the gas-bracket, turn the gas 
about half on, light up, lift up the handle of the iron, 
and insert the bit so that the flame plays right on to the 



\rt 




Fig. 5. — Bunsen Burner 



copper. 

There is still another method 
possible if you have a gas-heating 
stove (not a gas-cooker) in your 
house. Lift out some of the asbes- 
tos clay, and rig up the copper bit 
on a couple of bricks or on anything 
else handy and fireproof, so that 
the bit is held right in the top part 
of the flame. A small bit can be 
well heated in the blue flame of a 
"Primus" oil stove. I have dwelt somewhat at length 
upon the means of heating the bit, because I have 
found that it is the first big difficulty that the amateur 
solderer comes up against. 

If you simply took two pieces of tin plate just in the 
state you might happen to find them in, and then with 
solder and the copper bit just as it comes from the shop 
tried to solder them together, you would meet with more 
or less complete failure. Although you might not know it, 
judging from appearance only, the work and the bit are 
dirty, and the solder when melted will not flow over or 

J 129 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

" wet " or " tin," as it is termed, any unclean surface. 
So don't forget that when a job has to be soldered, the 
very first thing to do is to scrape it clean, using for the 
purpose an old knife or a file. 

The bit, which is expected to convey the solder to 
the actual spot where it is required, must for the same 
reason also be scrupulously clean, and before starting 
work it is customary to tin it, that is, actually to coat it 
with the solder. Plenty of people fail in such a simple 

job as this just 
because they 
will not take the 
necessary trouble 
to get the metal 
nice and bright. 
With a file go 
over it until the 
whole of its sur- 
faces resemble 
new metal. Then heat it to what is known as a dull red, 
quickly rub it over again with a file, and apply some 
" Tinol " to it, rubbing the bit on a piece of clean tinplate, 
so that the solder flows all over it. If using stick solder, 
dip the bit, after heating and cleaning, in the flux, and 
then rub the solder on it ; or, better still, get a small 
block of sal-ammoniac from the oilshop, and, after 
heating the bit, rub it on the block (Fig. 6), touch the 
bit with the solder, and you will see it immediately 
flow over the surface of the metal. You will not care 
for the smell of the fumes that will arise from the sal- 




Vl'i'i'i'i'lT'' 



lllllll'i'lllli'ih 



Fig. 6. — Tinning a Soldering Bit in 
block of Sal-ammoniac 



ammoniac. 



130 



Soldering 

Patching a Vessel. — Now we have tinned our bit 
and are ready to do some useful work. It is more than 
likely that the lady of the house has a tin-plate saucepan, 
kettle or dish that is in need of repair, and will be only 
too delighted to allow you to try your " 'prentice " hand 
upon it. As a typical soldering job, let me assume that 
you are going to cover a hole in a tin-plate vessel {see A, 
Fig. 7) with a neat little patch which we can readily cut 
with some 
stout scissors 
from a new 
coffee tin or 
anything else 
of the sort. 
Scrape around 
the hole in the 
vessel and 
make it nice 
and bright 
{see b). Then 
place the little piece of tin plate so as fairly to cover the 
hole (c), and with the point of a nail scratch the outline 
of the patch upon the work {see d) ; remove the patch, 
and by means of a bit of wood or the point of a 
bradawl apply some " Tinol " thinly all over the place 
and slightly beyond where the patch is to go. Then 
replace the patch as at c. 

In the meantime the soldering bit has been getting 
nicely hot in some one of the ways I have already de- 
scribed. Let it rest well on the patch with the object of 
transmitting as much heat as possible, and move the bit 

131 





Fig. 7. — Stages In preparing a Soldered 
or Sweated-on Patch 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

about so that every part of the patch comes under the 
influence of the heat. 

The job is done. The patch has been "sweated" on 
and with reasonable care the result is a good one. But 
probably you will not be satisfied. You will want to 
see the solder in a nice ring all round the patch. There 
is no reason why you should not, and the extra solder will 
be extra security. See that the bit is nicely hot, but not 
so hot that the tin upon it has been badly discoloured 
and burnt. If it has been, give it a touch with the file, 
rub it on the sal-ammoniac, and apply a little solder to 
its face, thus re-tinning it. Then transfer the bit to the 




Fig. 8. — Mouth Blowpipe 



edge of the patch, and apply a ring of " Tinol," and with 
the soldering bit in perfect condition gently wipe it round 
the edge of the patch. If you are using stick solder, you 
will need first to ring the patch with " killed spirit," and 
then apply bit and solder together. When you are a 
little more experienced you can experiment with the 
object of lifting up a bead of molten solder on the point 
or edge of the bit and transferring it to the work exactly 
where it is wanted. It is all-important when using stick 
solder to hold the work in such a way that the solder can 
run downhill to the spot where it is wanted. Many a 
boy has tried to make the solder climb the handle 
of a kettle, whereas if he had remembered that water 
always runs downhill he would have saved himself some 

132 



Soldering 




Fig. 9. — The three Cones or 
Zones of a Blowpipe Flame 



annoyance and 
have had the 
pleasure of pro- 
ducing a result 
of which he 
could have been 
proud. 

Soldering: with the Blowpipe. — Not all soldering 
is done with a soldering bit. Some of the neatest and 
cleverest work is executed by means of the mouth blow- 
pipe which is simply a bent tube of glass or metal shaped 
as in Fig. 8. This blowpipe is used for directing a tiny 
jet of flame upon a speck of solder resting on the spot 
that has to be soldered. The flame of a candle or spirit- 
lamp when directed and assisted by the mouth blowpipe 
becomes hot enough to melt solder most readily, as a single 
experiment would prove. In using the blowpipe {see 
Fig, 10) a good breath is taken in, so filling the lungs with 
air. The blowpipe is applied to the base of the flame, 
and a gentle but constant current of air blown through 
it. It will be seen 
that the candle ^^^''^'^'^'/^'" 
flame has three 
parts or zones 
{seeFig.9). That 
at the base 
marked x is the 
coolest of them 
all, and in a dark 
room would be 
almost invisible. 




-Using Mouth Blowpipe with 
Spirit-lamp Flame 



'33 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

The next zone marked y gives forth more light than 
either of the others. The tip of the flame marked 
z is the hottest of the three, and it is this part of 
the flame that does the work. You must try in using the 
mouth blowpipe to breathe through the nose, and at the 
same time keep the cheeks full of air, and a steady current 
passing through the blowpipe. A good flame will be of 
a bluish colour with a yellowish or brownish tip. Blow- 
pipe soldering comes in so useful when the job is too 
small for the soldering bit. Say, for example, you wish 
to attach the head of a pin to a coin. Clean the spot on 
the coin where the junction will come, and also the head 
of the pin. Touch both of them 
W^"''" ^ with the "Tinol." and, supporting 

I them on a piece of charcoal or brick, 

direct the flame on to them with a 
blowpipe one at a time. This "tins " 
them, that is, it coats them with 
solder. Leaving the coin where it is, 
Fig. U.—An easily-made hold the pin on the end of a strip of 
wood, and place its head in position 
on the coin exactly as it is to be when soldered. Then 
a touch with the blowpipe flame will unite the two. 

Fig. 11 shows how easily a spirit lamp for blowpipe 
soldering can be made. The wick tube is any small piece 
of tube available, and it slides fairly tightly through a 
hole cut in the lever lid of a small "self-opening" tin 
box. The wick is of loose threads. Note the small 
holes at the top of the wick tube ; they considerably im- 
prove the action of the lamp. Methylated spirit is the 
fuel. Lamps on this principle can be bought ready made. 

134 





Soldering 

Silver Soldering. — So far, I have talked about soft 
soldering only, that is, about solders that melt at the 
comparatively low temperature of a black-hot iron, but 
there is such a thing as hard soldering. The joints in a 
really good piece of silver-work or in a well-made model 
engine or boiler are hard-soldered, for which purpose an 
alloy of tin and lead would be of no use whatever, and 
recourse must be had to an alloy of silver and brass. Take 
my advice and if you use silver solder at all buy it ready 
made. Such a little bit will go such a long way. Buy it 
in the form of very thin 
sheet and with a pair of very 
strong scissors, or, if you have 
them, with a pair of snips, cut 
the sheet up into tiny squares Fi^- 12.— Gutting up Silver 

.^ -^ . ^ Solder into Paillons 

about ^ in. ( see Fig. 12 ). 

These are known as "paillons," which you may care to 
know is a French term. The flux for silver soldering is 
quite different from that you have already used. It is 
made by taking a piece of lump borax, moistening it with 
water, and rubbing it on a piece of slate until a thin paste 
is formed. Fig. 13 (p. 136) shows the outfit. 

If you ever try to build a model boiler or engine, you 
may need to make a joint in a tube or to solder the end 
into a tube (see Fig. 14). The surfaces having been scraped 
perfectly clean should have some of the borax paste ap- 
plied to them with a brush, and then, with the same brush, 
the tiny paillons of silver solder are placed in position all 
along the joint. Now slowly heat the work in the blow- 
pipe flame, but do not at first let the flame fall upon the 
solder. The latter should not be melted until the metal 

I3S 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

all round it reaches the temperature at which the solder 
becomes liquid. This course will serve to dry the borax, 
and the bubbling up may move some of the solder which 
will need to be pushed back into place. As the bubbling 
of the borax ceases, slightly advance the flame, and in 
due course the solder will melt and run into the joint, 
providing the work is held at such an angle that it is 
natural for the solder to run that way. Do not imme- 
diately remove the flame, but let it remain for a few 



0^ 



Charcoal Block 
setioPlasrer 



Wafer Bowl 




BiOWpipi 

Scraper 
Fig. 13. — Outfit for Silver Soldering 



seconds so as to cause the solder to sink right into the 
joint. 

Let the job get cold slowly, and then clean off the 
borax by placing it in a pickle made by pouring a tiny 
glass measureful of sulphuric acid into twenty times the 
quantity of water. By the way, never pour water into 
sulphuric acid, or the acid will spurt, and if it falls upon 
your hands or face you won't forget it in a hurry, and 
should it fall upon your clothes you can depend upon 
it that it won't do them any good ; probably some of 
your experiences in the chemistry lab. will be fresh in 
your memory, and my warning may be unnecessary, 

136 



Soldering 

I have described only one of the methods of hard or 
silver soldering because the process is well-nigh essential 
in serious model building, but I think I ought to warn 
you that it has difficulties all its own, and that to become 
an expert silver-solderer demands a lot of practice, and 



FJam cii'sc 



Solder 
/nside. 



( 'Binding ffire 
f/on^rd Disc 

Inside Method 

Fig. 14. 




SecOoto 
of finished 



f^^^M/ 



Tube 




Outside Method 

Silver Soldering ends into Tubes, especially applicable to 
Model Boiler Building 



there is a great deal more to be said about it than I have 
ventured to bother you with in this chapter. I prefer 
to occupy my space with information on work that 
is within nearly every boy's capacity, as measured in 
equipment and skill. 



137 



MAKING SIMPLE WOODEN TOYS 

I WANT to show you in this chapter how to make three 
wooden toys (all of them designed by Mr. I. Atkinson, 
to whom I am much indebted), which should be well 
within your capabilities. There is not a really difficult 
bit of work in any one of them. 

A Toy Gymnast. — One of the happiest toys I have 
seen for a long time is the toy gymnast, a photograph of 
which is given in one of the plates accompanying this 
book. Turn to that plate for a moment, and I will show 
you how the gymnast works. The figure or puppet is of 
thin, flat wood, normally hanging with his hands above 
his head, and the string which supports him is arranged 
as shown in the plan and elevation. Figs. 1 and 2 here- 
with. Normally the string is crossed, but when the lower 
ends of the levers are squeezed together by the fingers the 
upper ends are forced apart, the string is pulled taut, and 
the figure is jerked upwards in a most realistic manner. 
There is no end to the contortions and amusing positions 
of which the gymnast is capable, and when the maker of 
the toy here described sent it to me I very soon discovered 
that both juniors and seniors took a huge interest in its 
antics. The toy, which seems to be still a novelty, al- 
though a very old one, consists of a base, a post, a cross- 
piece, two upright levers, the string, and the figure. 

138 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 






u± 



W?3 

y — T" 



Fig. 1.- — Plan showing 

how Toy Gymnast is 

suspended 



Figs. 3 and 4 are front and side elevations of the wood- 
work, the levers being shown broken to economise space. 
We Avill deal with the parts separately, and make all 
clear as we go. 

In the first case, a fairly hard 
wood should be used. The levers need 
to be of tough stuff, or some careless 
body will sooner or later break them. 
For the base a, post and cross-piece, 
you had better use mahogany, oak, 
walnut, or other hard well-seasoned 
furniture wood. The base should not 
be less than f in. thick, and 4| in. or 
5 in. long by 3J in. or 4 in. wide. A 
hole is bored in its exact centre to 
take a dowel (shown in dotted lines 
at the bottom of Fig. 3), which runs 
up into the post or pillar b. 

This post is about | in. square 
and about 5| in. high, and it carries 
at its top a cross-piece c shaped as 
in the detail plan (Fig. 5), where full 
dimensions are given. The connec- 
tion here, also, is by means of a dowel, 
as shown, for which a hole will need 
to be bored with a twist bit and a suit- 
able piece of round rod prepared and 
well glued in. An excellent alternative 
to the dowel would be a stub-tenon at 
each end of the pillar, with a mortise in 
base and cross-piece to correspond. 

139 




-Front Eleva- 
tion of Toy Gymnast 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

The exact shape of the cross-piece is of importance, 
inasmuch as this part is a fulcrum on which the levers 
work. You will recognise the levers as belonging to the 
" first order." The horns of the recesses in the cross- 
piece keep the levers upright^ but you will note that the 



^. 







J C 



t 



13 



/} 



=1 



T 






O 




Figs. 3 and 4. — Two Elevations of Gymnast's Stand 



bases of the recesses are not quite flat, but there is a 
little projection in the centre on which the levers can be 
rocked a trifle. You will understand this more clearly 
from Fig. 6, which is a large-scale detail section from which 
it will be apparent that the lever d is free to rock a little 
on the cross-piece c. 

The levers d are shown in a number of the views. 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 



They are 16 in. long, | in. \vide, and f in. thick. At a 
distance of 5| in. from the lower end a hole is bored 
through the thickness to take a wire nail — a fairly stout 
one, about 1 J in. long. The nails must not fit the holes in 
the levers tightly, and the holes must be countersunk to 
take the heads of the nails. Preferably, also, the holes 
should widen out towards the heads of the nail so that the 
lever can rock easily. At I in. from the top of the lever 
are two fine holes | in. apart to take the string, as shown 
by the dotted lines in the detail plan (Fig. 1). 





rLS) 




1 

•s 

T ' - 


o 

c 








Fig. 5.— Pla 
for Toy 


n of C 
Gymn 


rossbar 
ast 




Fig. 6. — Diagram showing how 
Levers rock on Crossbar 



The figure or puppet must be made of tough wood, 
preferably not more than ^ in. thick. The kind of pear- 
wood used frequently for cheap set squares is one of the 
best materials for the purpose. The figure is in five parts 
— the head and body, two legs, and two arms, and it can 
be ornamented with ink or stain or with a touch or two 
of paint. The pattern for body, leg, and arm respectively 
are given by Figs. 7, 8 and 9. There are two holes in the 
body, one hole in each leg, one in each shoulder, and three 
in each hand. The leg and shoulder holes take the wire 
pivots. 

The largest of the three holes in the hand^ — that 

141 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

shown by the little circle in Fig. 9 — takes a tiny piece of 
matchstick {see e. Fig. 2), which keeps the hands apart 
and assists the action of the toy. The two fine holes in 
the hands take the string, which actually is a piece of fine, 
but thoroughly good catgut (an " A " violin string a few 
inches long), which should be threaded through and 
tied exactly as shown in the detail plan. Fig. 1. It is 
wise to drill all the holes before cutting the pieces to 
shape. 

There is one point of particular importance in assemb- 
ling the figure. Fig. 7 shows in dotted lines the exact 
positions of the arms. Their length and position on the 
body should be such that when the gymnast is raised 
above the catgut his body can come forward over the 
string and between his hands, trailing his legs after him. 

The parts of the body can be shaped with fretsaw 
and knife, and cleaned up with glasspaper. 

The pivots are pieces of wire, such as fine hairpin, on 
which " heads " have been formed by making tiny loops 
by means of fine-pointed pliers, these loops being bent at 
right angles to the wire and flat against the body of the 
puppet. In making these pivots, the head, as described, 
would be formed on one end of the wire, the leg, body, 
and second leg threaded up, the wire cut off to within 
about I in. or so, and a second head formed and bent over. 
The arms are put on in the same way, but between each 
arm and the body is a small bead (slightly thicker than 
the wood of wliich the puppet is made) threaded on the 
wire as indicated in Fig. 2. If these beads are omitted, 
it will be found that the legs will be continually getting 
jammed between the arms and the body. The distance 

142 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 

piece E (Fig. 2) will not be glued in until the arms have 
been threaded to the body. 

You will need a little help in the suspension of the 
puppet. Holding it upside down with the holes in the 
hands opposite those in the levers, thread the two ends 
of the gut straight through lever, hand, hand and lever, 
without any crossing, and tie the ends together ; then, 




■-,'-.8- A- ' 




Fig. 7.— Body Pattern Fig. 8.— Leg Pattern Fig. 9.— Arm Pattern 

when the figure is allowed to drop, the gut will cross 
exactly as shown in the detail (Fig. 1). 

The best finish for the toy is a good coat of varnish, 
but there is no reason why you should not paint it in some 
attractive colours if you so wish. Varnish or painting 
should be done before threading together the parts of the 
figure or suspending it in place. 

A Toy Aeroplane. — You will reaUsc at once that the 
aeroplane shown in the plate already referred to and in 
side elevation and plan by Figs. 10 and 11 is not a model 

143 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



but merely a toy, which, by means of a string tied to a 
ring in front of the propeller, can be pulled about by 
your small brother and sister, who will occasionally have 
the joy, should the speed be great enough or a wind be 
blowing, of seeing the propeller revolve. The toy consists 
chiefly of the body a with rudder b, propeller f (we ought 




Fig. 10. — Elevation of Toy Aeroplane 



t- / ^ 



::^ 



Z'-^'r/'^ 



Fig. 11. — Plan of Toy Aeroplane 

really to call it a tractor, I suppose), with planes c 
and E mounted on an axle d to the ends of which are 
screwed wheels. I show how the whole of the toy can 
be made in wood, which will look all the better and be 
all the more pleasing to its owner if brightly painted. 

Let us take the body first. It is 9^ in. long. If in. 
high, and its greatest thickness is 1| in. It is shaped with 

144 



EASY TOY MAKING 



/ 



^y 







A Toy Gymnast 

{See pages 139 to 143 for 
Working Diaivinos) 




A Toy Tank 

{See pnges 14S to 151 for Working Draw'iiigs) 





1 

1 





A Toy Aeroplane 

(Sfr piiges 144 Ai 147 /.T ]\'iuinng Draiviiigs) 



For iiifoniiation on nniliing these toys, see pages 13S to 152 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 

saw and plane or knife. You will see that, as illustrated, 
it tapers at the tail end, where it is only f in. square. 
At its front or nose, where the propeller is attached, it is 
about I in. square. These dimensions will be found to 
give a good effect, but if you can improve upon them, or 
if you have some stuff at hand of other and equally 

convenient size, I see no objection to your making any 
reasonable modifica- 
tions that occur to you. 
For example, if you 

were making two or 

three toys of this sort, 

you might wish to save 

time by keeping the 

body of the same width 

from front to back, and 

you could easily cut 

two bodies out of a 

piece of f-in. stuff, 

roughly 10 in. long, and 

2f in. wide. A slant- 
ing cut, as shown in 




Fig. 12. — Cutting two Aeroplane 
Bodies from one piece 




■f^ 2"t vk U A 

Fig. 13. — Setting out Rudders 



J\. 



Fig. 14.— Setting out Planes 



Fig. 12, would make two bodies from such a piece. Simi- 
larly a strip of three-ply stuff, 3 in. wide, could be divided 
up, as shown in Fig. 13, and cut up without wasting a bit 
of it into rudders, which could be left pointed or could be 
easily rounded with a knife. 

The rudder is only such in name. As shown at b, it 

is simply a piece of flat wood (three-ply is the strongest 

for the purpose) glued and nailed into a slot or notch 

sawn in the body. Suitable dimensions are shown in the 

K 145 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

illustration (Fig. 10). Note that the fish-tail shape keeps 
the rear of the body off the ground. Just in front of 
the rudder b is the elevator plane e, about 3 in. long 
and 1 in. wide, made of three-ply stuff, and glued and 
nailed to the body. 

As for the front planes c, these are 8 in. long and 2 in. 
wide, and the thickness can be about J in., but any three- 
ply stuff can be used, and a strip of it, 2 in. wide, can be 
economically set out and sawn up, as in Fig. 14. System 
in setting out means economy when you are making two 
or three toys of the same pattern at one time. The lower 
plane is nailed to the axle below it, and also to the under- 
side of the body above it. But before the nailing is done, 
holes need to be bored through both planes to receive the 
vertical struts which support the upper plane. I show 
only three such struts, but more would look better. They 
may consist of wooden rods about ^ in. thick and about 
3 in. or 3| in. in total length. They should fit the holes 
in the top and bottom planes tightly, and be glued in 
place. 

The axle should be about 5 in. long and | in. deep. 
The shape and thickness do not matter, but the shape 
given in Fig. 15 may be adopted if you like. At each end 
of the axle is a wheel which may be of cast iron — a type 
that can be bought at many ironmonger's shops very 
cheaply indeed — or the wheels may be cut from cotton 
reels or from any cylindrical wood. 

The propeller f (Fig. 10) should be set out on a piece 
of three-ply to a length of 5 in. {see the pattern, Fig. 16), 
and width of | in., and cut to shape with saw, afterwards 
cleaning up with glasspaper. Two pieces of wood or 

146 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 

metal of the shape shown in Fig. 17 can be joined together 
at right angles to give a good effect. 

We must remember that, as I said before, this aeroplane 
is merely a toy, not a model, and therefore should not be 
finished model-fashion. It is for the use of a little child, 
and the grey paint which in your eyes would make it 
so much the more professional is not to be thought of. 
Rub over all rough edges and surfaces with glasspaper, 
give it a second rub- 



l«-/^-^ 



i, 

t' 



o 



Fig. 15. — Front Elevation of 
Toy Aeroplane Axle 




Fig. 16. — Wooden Propeller 




Fig. 17. — Pattern for Metal Propeller 



bing with a finer 
paper, dust it, and 
then paint it in some 
attractive colours, 
making the rudder, 
the axle, and the pro- 
peller of different 
colours from the body. 
Two or three sample 
tins of the well-known 
enamels which can 
be bought very cheaply will enable you to arrive at some 
startling effects, which will give great joy to the small 
person for whom the model is intended. 

A Toy " Tank." — A substantial, if by no means 
pretty, toy is shown in the third photograph on the plale 
already referred to. This toy is as close a representation 
of its dreaded original as an article constructed almost 
whoUy of wood, and intended merely as a plaything, can 
be made. There are no travelling belts which would 
render the toy more realistic, but these belts would be 
only in the way on a toy for a little boy's use, and had 

147 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

best be omitted. However, you can exercise your in- 
genuity if you so wish, and easily devise an arrangement 
for carrying the belts if you think tlie trouble and expense 
are worth it. 




Fig. 18. — Part Elevation and Part Section of Toy " Tank" 




Fig. 19.— Plan of Toy " Tank " with Cover of Middle 
Cabin removed 

You will be able to get all details of the construction 
of the toy from the part elevation and part section (Fig. 
18), and from the plan (Fig. 19). In the first of these 
diagrams it is assumed that the front side has been re- 
moved, and in the second that the cover of the middle 
cabin has been taken off. The actual centres and dimen- 
sions for setting out the sides are given in Fig. 20. 

148 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 

Let us consider the sides first. Each is a piece of 
stuff at least | in. thick (it might be even thicker), not 
less than 3^ in. wide or less than 7| in. long. As the 
exact shape or contour is such a big factor in the toy, 
you had better take the trouble of setting it out on a 
piece of cardboard first, and you can then cut the card- 
board carefully to the outline and use it as a pattern or 
template for laying down on the wood. Some boys are 
remarkably good at catching the proportions and general 




Fig. 20.— Setting out Sides, etc., of Toy "Tank" 



shape of an outline, but most readers will need the assist- 
ance of the diagram given in Fig. 20. Draw the base 
line, and then set up the perpendiculars a and b, which 
are 6 in. apart. The centre c is 2 in., and d is 1 in., from 
the base line. Join c and d. Setting your compasses to 
a radius of | in., strike arcs from d and c, and from these 
draw slanting lines to the base line as shown. Bisect the 
line c D by means of the line e, which, of course, will be 
at right angles to it, and continue e right through the base 
line and mark a point at a distance of 41 in. below c d. 
This is the centre for the top curve, which should be 
drawn in so as to connect up the circular ends. The 
oblong piece shown in Fig. 20 is one of the side cabins. 

149 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

The pattern or template should be laid down upon the 
planed wood, and a line pencilled round. A bow saw 
would cut the curve quite well, but if you do not possess 
one you must do the best you can by nibbling off bits 
here and there with an ordinar}^ saw and afterwards 
shaping with knife and chisel, finishing with coarse, 
medium and fine glasspaper in the order given. One 
face of the wood you are using is probably better than 
the other, and it will be well to lay the pattern on upside 
down when marking out the second side, so as to ensure 
that the parts of the sides that show have the best possible 
appearance. 

On each side is nailed a little cabin, of which Fig. 21 
is the inner elevation and Fig. 22 the cross-section. You 
will note that the gun is suspended so as to move slightly 
when the " tank " is pulled along. Each side cabin 
consists of one piece of wood, 2| in. by If in. by | in. 
thick, and in each are bored two holes. One of these 
holes is bored from the inside face, and has a diameter 
of 2 in. Really it is a recess going only about three- 
quarters of the way through. The other hole is simply 
a gun port through the front of the cabin to connect with 
the recess. I have mentioned the two holes in this order, 
but, as a matter of fact, in boring it would be better to 
make the small hole (| in. or | in. in diameter) first, and 
then cut the recess with a big centrebit. The precise 
size of the recess is of no importance. Of course, in making 
the two side cabins you will recognise that they must be 
a pair ; in other words, one must be made on a different 
" hand " from the other. 

The dummy guns are pieces of round rod suspended 

150 



Making Simple Wooden Toys 



by a wire in such a way that they can roll quite freely. 
Tiny screw-eyes can support the wires, or small holes 
can be drilled and a looped wire inserted and clenched 
over on the top. The side cabins should not be nailed 
on until the inside cabin and the bottom have been fixed. 

The " tank " is held together by means of a bottom f 
and centre cabin g h, to which the sides are nailed. The 
bottom F is 2 in. wide, from | in. to f in. thick, and about 
9 in. long. Two holes can be bored through the back 





Fig. 21. — Elevation of 

" Tank's " Side Cabin, 

showing Inner Side 



Fig. 22. — Cross Section 

through "Tank's" 

Side Cabin 



part as shown, but their only purpose is to lighten the 
appearance. On the bottom are nailed back and front 
walls G and h to the centre cabin. Their height is If in. 
or 2 in., and the width must agree with that of the bottom. 
In the front wall is bored a hole through which the dummy 
gun projects. The top or cover to the cabin is a piece of 
similar stuff to the walls, 4 in. long, and a recess is bored 
in its underside to give play or freedom to the dummy 
gun J, which swings to and fro. The gun is of round rod, 
and suspended on wires in the manner illustrated. The 
cover is nailed down on the cabin walls. 

You will take great care that in putting together the 
" tank " you get the bottom slightly on the slope. The 

151 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

amount of the slope will largely depend on the size of 
the rear wheels you are using, and it should be sufficient 
to give clearance to the wooden roller l, which works 
between the sides, and is pivoted on two wire nails. The 
back wheels are mounted on a stout wire, roughly 3 in. 
long, or a wooden axle may be nailed or screwed to the 
bottom if preferred. 



>52 



PAINTING, ENAMELLING, AND STAINING 

Painting. — Most things that you make in wood need 
to be finished with a coat of paint or varnish. Anybody 
can put on paint, say you. Yes, I think anybody can, 
but what is necessary is to use the right kind of paint 
and put it on properly. Now, the first essential is a 
good brush. A little more money spent on the brush at 
the start and a little more care taken with it in use will 
mean far better work than can be done with a poor 
brush, which will lose its hairs continually as the painting 
progresses and will leave the painted surface covered with 
ugly brush marks. What the painter calls a " fitch " 
with hog-hair bristles, a flat brush of the same material, 
a good-quality sash tool — that is, a brush specially shaped 
for painting narrow sash bars, etc. — an oval brush or 
either of the last-named " ground," that is, bevelled to 
an edge — any of these is an excellent paint brush for 
general use, and you can work wonders with a small 
and a large sash tool. 

When you get a new brush, and you have some rough- 
and-ready work waiting to be done, you can go straight 
ahead with it, because the rough painting will do the 
brush a lot of good, and get it into condition for better 
jobs. Workmen often get a new brush into condition 
by using it for a day or two for painting brick walls. 

153 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

Do not forget that when the job is over and if the brush 
is not to be used again for some time, it should be rinsed 
out in turpentine to remove the paint and then thoroughly 
well washed with soap and water — very little water at 
first, but plenty of soap, afterwards increasing the water 
until the soap lathers freely. Next, the brush should be 
rinsed out under the water tap, shaken free of water, 
allowed to dry, wrapped up in paper, and put away till 
wanted. If, on the other hand, the brush will be wanted 
for use next day, keep it with just its bristles, and only 
the bristles., immersed in linseed oil or in a mixture of 
linseed oil and turpentine, tying a string round the handle 
and so suspending the brush that the weight does not 
come on the bristles. Should the bristles be mounted 
in tin or other metal, always keep the metal out of the 
liquid. 

A new brush of the quality used by a workman is 
too long in the bristle for use, and it is customary to tie 
string round the bristles at the part where they are secured 
to the handle so as, in effect, to make them shorter. Then, 
as they wear down, the string is undone turn by turn. 
I do not suppose, though, that you will take the trouble 
to do this, but always remember that the professional 
painter gets his good results very largely because he is 
willing to spend time on such details. 

Any pot will do to hold the paint, and nowadays the 
best oilshops, and, of course, the decorators' supply 
houses, sell paint put up in cans having very convenient 
handles so that the can itself acts as a paint pot. 

Mixing up your own paint is probably out of the 
question. You will buy a good quality ready-prepared 

154 



Painting, Enamelling, and Staining 

paint, which, believe me, is far superior to anything you 
can make at home. But as I like to explain the why and 
wherefore of things as I go along, I may explain what an 
oil paint actually is. It is a pigment — what you may 
know as a " colour " — or a mixture of pigments worked 
up with a suitable liquid so that it can be spread over 
the work to be painted. Very frequently the pigment 
has a metallic base, for examples, white lead, red lead, 
zinc white, red oxide of iron, etc., or it may be a coloured 
earth, such as ochre, umber, etc. The principal liquid in 
the paint is linseed oil, or similar oil, which, when drying, 
forms a tough elastic coat which protects everything it 
covers from the effects of the atmosphere. The pigment 
gives some protection also and supplies the colour. To 
make the paint workable and to give it a nice consistency, 
turpentine is added. A further ingredient — the driers — 
may be added to assist the paint to dry quickly, but you 
will remember that the drying of paint is not like the 
drying of a wet coat. It is simply the combining of the 
oil of the paint with the oxygen of the air, and not a simple 
evaporation. 

On new wood paint has a way of sinking in, and 
leaving a very unsatisfactory surface, and no amount of 
daubing on the paint at the outset will get a really good 
effect if only one coat is used. If you have made a kennel, 
a cupboard, or a boat, and have put some weeks, or per- 
haps months, of work into it, surely it is worth while 
putting in a few extra hours in order to execute the painting 
properly, and so I advise you not to be content with just 
one coat. For the first coat, use the prepared paint just 
as you receive it, having previously rubbed down all the 

^55 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

surfaces with glasspaper. Allow at least twenty-four 
hours for the paint to dry (it will not be really dry, but 
will be sufficiently hard for the purpose), and then go over 
the work with some putty or painter's stopping, and fill 
in all little holes made by punching in the heads of nails, 
etc. etc., using for the purpose an old blunt table-knife. 
The stopping is made by mixing I lb. of putty with 2 oz. 
of paste white lead (white lead ground in oil). Now 
putty, which is only whiting or ground chalk and oil, can 
be safely held in the hand, as it is quite harmless, but 
white lead, or any mixture of it. should always be held 
on a little board of wood, as all the lead compounds affect 
the human body injuriously. 

If you have had to do much stopping up of crevices, 
you had better leave the work another twenty-four hours. 
But if only an occasional nail-hole has had to be filled 
up, you can go ahead at once. Gently rub the whole 
job down with a piece of worn glasspaper and apply a 
second coat of paint, this time mixing a little turpen- 
tine with it. This thinning will make the paint flow 
more easily, and will assist it in combining with the 
first coat. Allow another twenty-four hours at least, and 
you can then give the third and final coat, this time 
using the paint as it is, and without any extra 
turpentine. 

Enamelling:. — Some of the nicest paint on the market 
goes by the name of enamel. This is really a very fine 
pigment or colour ground up with a suitable varnish, and 
I know that its use will appeal to you. Unfortunately, 
people suppose that enamelling is childishly easy, and 
they proceed to daub the stuff on where it is wanted, 

156 



Painting, Enamelling, and Staining 

and often where it is not wanted, so generously that it 
runs down in " tears " like so much treacle. Such sloppy 
work is unworthy of the boy mechanic. It is not difficult, 
I admit, to get a showy effect with enamel paint, but 
please take the trouble of preparing the work properly 
and of applying the enamel carefully. If your pocket 
affords, get a really good brush for the job, or use one 
that has been well broken in. Sometimes at a second- 
hand shop I have seen good paint brushes, one-third or 
one-half worn, to be had for just about the same propor- 
tion of their original price. Such a brush thoroughly 
well washed with soap and water, rinsed and dried, would 
make a first-rate enamel brush. If you buy a new one, 
get a brush especially made for varnish. Thoroughly 
prepare the work in the first place with worn glasspaper, 
and if you are intent upon getting a result of which you 
may well be proud you will need to buy at the same 
time as you purchase the enamel a tin of the special 
" undercoating " made by the enamel manufacturer 
especially for use with his enamel. Apply two or three 
coats of this special preparation, allowing full time for 
each coat to get hard, and gently rubbing each down with 
worn glasspaper and wiping over with a duster before 
proceeding farther. On such a basis as this you will 
get a very fine finish, and if you are out for something 
very special, you can apply a second coat of the 
enamel. 

Perhaps you do know that not all enamel is glossy. 
Some of it dries with what is known as a " flat," that is, 
a lustreless finish, or with the very slightest shine re- 
sembling that on a new-laid egg. The use of a flat enamel 

157 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

on a piece of furniture is generally preferable to that of 
the glossy kind. 

Always, in enamelHng, avoid dust. Don't do the 
work in a dusty room, and don't let the brushes and 
enamel lie about and get gritty. Keep everything as 
clean as you can. Pour a little of the enamel out into a 
small vessel, and use it all up before taking more from 
the tin. Another important point is, try to strike the 
^^PPy medium by applying not so much as will run down 
in tears or form wavy lines, and not so little as to cause 
the brush marks to show and give a patchy effect. The 
advice is quite easily given, but there is more in putting 
it into practice than you might suppose. Finally, don't 
brush or work the enamel too much in applying it. The 
fewer the strokes of the brush the better. 

Staining^. — Now this is a very different process of 
colouring wood. It adds nothing to the surface, but is 
simply a method of dyeing the outer skin of the wood. 
The old-time craftsmen were very clever in concocting 
vegetable stains, and the beauty of their effects has never 
been surpassed, but nowadays only the few still go to 
the trouble of making their own stains, and most people 
rely upon various forms of aniline colours, a variety of 
which can be bought in cheap packet form. As a rule, 
directions are printed on the packets, and they amount 
to little more than adding hot or cold water, with perhaps 
a little vinegar, to the powder, although many of them 
(those known as "spirit soluble") require the addition 
of spirits of wine or the far cheaper methylated spirit, 
which is practically the same thing with the addition of 
some nasty-tasting mineral spirit to render it objectionable 

158 



Painting, Enamelling, and Staining 

to the palate. Aniline dyes can be applied with brush, 
or sponge, and will be found excellent for general use, 
although the brighter colours, particularly the reds, are 
fugitive— in other words, they bleach— in direct sunlight. 
Bichromate of potash and permanganate of potash, 
respectively, dissolved in hot water make fine rich stains, 
and coat after coat can be applied until the right tone is 
reached. 

An excellent walnut stain is made by stewing some 
green walnut peel in water and applying two or three 
coats of the liquid to the wood in a warm room. When 
nearly dry, give it a coat of bichromate of potash solution. 

To make wood resemble the tone of dark oak, apply 
some brunswick black considerably thinned with tur- 
pentine. 

For a mahogany stain dissolve 1 oz. of dragon's blood 
(a gum you can buy at an oilshop) in 1 pint of turpentine. 
Stand the bottle in a warm place and shake it frequently. 

Most of you know the term "fumed oak." The 
fuming or fumigation of oak is an interesting process, but 
not all oak is susceptible to the action of the ammonia 
used for the purpose. Some varieties of mahogany also 
can be treated in this way. To find out whether a piece 
of wood can be darkened by fuming, place a portion of it 
over the mouth of a bottle containing liquor ammonia (the 
so-called " hquid ammonia "), the stopper having been 
removed. If the wood is susceptible, its colour will soon 
darken. The work must be quite clean from grease or 
the marks of the hands. If you are using a good-sized 
packing case as the fumigating apartment, place a saucer- 
ful of liquor ammoniae on the floor of the case, then insert 

»S9 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the articles, but not so that they touch the liquid, close 
the lid, and stop the joints by pasting on strips of brown 
paper. The longer the wood is left in the case the darker 
will it become. Wiping over with diluted liquor am- 
moniae will have a darkening effect upon any wood that 
is susceptible of the other treatment, but the true fuming 
method has one great advantage over the use of liquid 
stains — it does not raise the grain of the wood. Generally, 
after the use of a liquid stain, it is necessary, if a good 
finish is required, to go all over the work with glasspaper 
to remove the portions of the wood fibres swollen and 
raised by the liquid. 

The oilshops sell a mixture known as " combined 
stain and varnish," and you may be tempted to use it. 
It may do for a common job, but not for anything which 
you prize, as the effect is rather cheap and nasty. The 
boy mechanic may be entrusted with the job of staining 
a floor margin, and may resort to the stuff as being the 
easiest and quickest for his purpose, but he will get a far 
better effect and a more lasting one by getting some oak, 
walnut, or mahogany stain in liquid or powder form, 
giving it twenty-four or forty-eight hours after appli- 
cation to get dry, then applying a coat of size, and 
finally a good flowing coat of oil varnish purchased from 
a reliable firm. 



:f*o 



FRETWORK IN WOOD 



Most people associate fretwork with those fantastic 
and often fragile articles which sometimes ornament 
cottage parlours — photograph frames that dwarf the 
photographs, model " tanks " and locomotives grotesque 
to the point of absurdity, clock cases and brackets that 
nobody dare dust, and so on. Fretwork has suffered from 
two causes — poor designs and their wrong application. It 
is restricted in its 
scope, but the zealous 
fretcutter has not 
recognised any limita- 
tions and has applied 
his ornament to any- 
thing and everything 
that can be made of 
wood. Fretwork can 
be made very beau- 
tiful and can be 
extended to ivory, celluloid and various metals. 
I shall give in this chapter a few designs (see 
Figs. 2, 6, 7, 8 and 10) that, in my opinion, will 
occasion but little reproach. Let me first talk of 
fretwork in wood, and leave the finer work in metal 
to a later chapter. 




Fig. I. — Fretsaw 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

Saws. — The saw may be hand or machine, the ad- 
vantages of the latter being greater speed of cutting, less 
fatigue, and freedom of both hands to guide and control 
the work. Suitable machines are shown in variety in 
any dealer's catalogue. In use keep the machine clean 
and oil all the bearings often but sparingly; a suitable 
lubricant is cycle oil of a thick variety. 

The hand saw may resemble Figs. 1 and 3, or may be 
one of the many other patterns available. The sweep 
of the frame should not be less than 12 in. or more than 
18 in. In selecting a frame, see that the clamps which 
hold the blade in tension are good and work well. The 
best type of clamping arrangement is that in which the 
blade is simply inserted and then tightened up by giving 
the handle a turn. Something quick and easy is required 
because the saw has frequently to be threaded through 
holes drilled in the work, for which reason the blade has 
to be undamped every time. Remember one point : 
so thread the blade that the teeth cut on the downstroke, 
otherwise the sawdust will obscure the lines of the pattern, 
and a swarf be raised on the paper which will make it 
difficult to follow the lines ; this means that the working 
stroke is the pull and not the push, as the controlling 
hand is underneath the work. When a fretsaw, usually 
a machine saw, cuts on the upstroke, a blowing device 
is employed to keep the pattern free of sawdust. 

With regard to saw-blades, buy the best. The differ- 
ence in price between the good and the bad is so little 
as not to be worth considering, whilst a poor, slow-cutting 
soft blade which soon bends or an over-hardened one that 
soon breaks when in use is a nuisance and may mean the 

162 










Fig. 2. — Design for "Oval" Frame in Fretwork 

{A and B show respectivdy a difficult and comparatively easy detail 
of forming the rebated edge) 



163 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




fracture of delicate detail. Rounded-back blades of the 

best quality will give the greatest satisfaction. 

Other Equipment. — Work is held for sawing by means 

of a cutting board, 
which is either per- 
manently screwed to 
the bench or fitted 
with a clamp for 
attachment to bench 
or table. The usual 
shape is shown in 
Fig. 3.— How to Hold a Fretsaw Fig. 4, the V-lK)tch 

accommodating the saw blade when at work. This 

figure shows a table or bench especially designed 

for fretworkers' use. Perhaps you can pick up a light 

table for a few shillings and screw on a notched 

cutting-board, and, if 

necessary, shorten the legs 

by an inch or two so that 

as you sit at your work 

the table-top is at such a 

height that your left hand 

easily rests upon it, while 

your right works the saw ^Wf| x^jj 

from underneath. Then, if """^ 

a small vice (as in Fig. 4) c^ 

can be attached at one end, p;g 4._Fretworker's Table with 
you will have a serviceable Cutting-board and Vice 

and comfortable bench for fretwork and similar light opera- 
tions; but don't attempt to use it for carpentry work, as 
it will not be solid or heavy enough for planing upon. 

164 




Fretwork in Wood 




Besides the usual tools and accessories — hammer, fine- 
toothed ordinary saw, pincers, small screwdriver, chisel, 
small nails or " pins," seccotine, gluepot, etc. — which most 
boy mechanics are almost certain to possess, you will 
need a special tool for drilling or boring holes in the work 
to give a start for the saw in enclosed parts of the design. 
A bradawl or even a gimlet — anything 
with a wedge-shaped point — will only split 
the work as a rule. The proper tool is the 
drill named after your dear old class-room 
friend Archimedes, its twisted stem resem- 
bling the famous hollow screw which the 
ancient Greek invented (about 260 years 
B.C.) for the purpose of raising water. The 
twisted stem rotates in a bearing formed 
in the handle {see Fig. 5), and is given 
motion by pressing down the bobbin through 
which the stem is threaded. The bottom 
end of the stem carries a chuck (vice) to 
hold a drill-bit. A good type of archime- 
dean drill has a small spring in the handle 
to assist the withdrawal of the bit ; another 
improved pattern facilitates speedy work — 
it carries balance weights just above the 
chuck, the momentum which they gain on the down 
stroke of the bobbin being sufficient to keep the drill 
rotating on the idle upstroke. 

Another necessity is glasspaper of three grades, Nos. 
2, 1| and 1, used respectively for rubbing off pasted- 
down designs, cleaning up the surface and finishing the 
job; the higher the number of the glasspaper the coarser 

•65 



Fig. 5. — Archi- 
medean Drill 
with Chuck 
or Holder to 
take D ri lis 
or Boring 
Bits 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

being its grade. The trouble in using glasspaper is that 
without great care you find yourself rubbing away the 
sharp edges of the wood and losing the effect of good 
workmanship. Therefore to obviate this always use the 
glasspaper wrapped tightly round a block of wood or cork. 







Fig. 6. — Design for Wall Bracket in Fretwork 

(The centre support is a repeat of half the bach) 

Fretwood. — So far I have not mentioned the material. 
Many firms now make a speciality of fretwood, and you 
can order from them exactly what you want, so avoiding 
waste pieces. Almost every cabinet-making wood is ob- 
tainable in suitable thickness — in the neighbourhood of 
=j'g in. — for fretwork; and the unit of measurement is the 
square foot. Thus, a piece of wood 7 in. wide by 29 in. 
long will contain 7 X 29 = 203 sq. in., nearly 1| sq. ft., 
and would be charged for on that basis. 

i66 



Fretwork in Wood 







All fretwork is liable to warp and twist. Wood is 
constantly absorbing or giving off moisture according to 
the condition of the surrounding atmosphere, and unless 
it is suitably secured at the sides or held down by weights 
warping is inevit- ^^ 

able when the fibres rC^ ^. 

swell. Two-ply and 
three-ply wood has 
two or three layers 
of thin wood glued 
together under 
great pressure, one 
of them being at 
right angles to the 
other or others as 
regards the direc- 
tion of the grain, so 
that the grain of 
one layer counter- 
acts any tendency 
of the other layer 
to twist out of 
shape. Some good 
pieces of three-ply 
material can often 







Fig. 7. — Design for Frame in Fretwork 



be obtained from tea-chests, but the faces of the stuff 
need to be glasspapered into condition. 

The Design or Pattern. — Fretwork designs of the 
printed kind are obtainable on thin paper and need to be 
pasted down on the wood (but if they can be easily trans- 
ferred by means of carbon paper and a hard pencil, so 

167 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



much the better, and there will then be no paper needing 
to be rubbed off at a later stage). Let the length of the 
design run in the direction of the grain. Apply the paste 

to the design only, and use 
either boiled starch or an 
office paste of the " Fixol" 
or " Stickphast " types, but 
in any case use as little 
as will effect the purpose. 
Applying the paste to the 
wood itself or an excess of 
paste on the paper will 
raise the grain and pos- 
sibly warp the wood. Let 
the pasted paper get 
thoroughly dry before 
starting to use the saw. 

Using the Fretsaw. — 
The actual fretsawing is a 
matter of infinite care and 
practice, and not much 
need be said concerning it. 
Hold down the work firmly 
with the left hand, see that 
the blade is held taut in 
its frame, and firmly grip 
the handle in the right 
hand, always keeping the 
blade perfectly upright and 
making uniform, steady 
strokes. The right hand 
x68 




Fig. 8. — Design for Letter Rack 
in Fretwork 



Fretwork in Wood 



simply works the saw up and down, and does not 
advance the saw into the wood. The feeding of the 
work to the saw is a matter for the left hand, and 
this is where most people find the machine saw to 
have a great advantage. It is usual to saw out the 
inside parts of the pattern before attempting the edges, 
because the work is then more easily and safely handled 
up to the final stages. 

The turning of both inside and outside corners is a 
matter for practice. Use fine good saws and plenty of 
common sense. 

Overlays, Marquetry, etc. — 
The modern fretworker is fond 
of overlays — fret-cut patterns in 
thin stuff glued down on the 
face of the work. Very thin 
stuff should be placed between 
waste stuff, nailed together at 
the edges, and the pattern laid 
down on the top piece of 
waste. This leads to double and 
treble cutting — known as plural 
cutting — only to be attempted when you have mastered 
the correct use of the saw — and to marquetry, which is a 
system of ornamentation by which very interesting effects 
can be obtained. Two pieces of wood of different colours, 
say holly and rosewood, are cut at the same time, care being 
taken to keep the sawn edges perfectly square, and to 
avoid spoiling any cut-out pieces as might be perfectly 
legitimate in ordinary fretwork. Then the parts of the 
two designs are interchanged {see Fig. 9) to give good 

169 



E3(kIE 



Fig. 9. — Marquetry Inter- 
change Pattern 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



effects, and glued down on the surfaces to be 
ornamented, thus forming two companion ornaments 
in reverse colours. 

Finishing. — For removing the pasted-down design do 
not attempt to soak it off. Fretted woodwork cannot 

stand water. 
Instead, place 
it on a per- 
fectly smooth 
flat surface 
and rub it off 
with No. 2 
glasspaper held 
round a block, 
finishing with 
Nos. 1| and 
1 applied suc- 
cessively. 

By inclin- 
ing the saw- 
blade inwards 
when cutting 
out a piece 
(a circle, say, 
or other simple 
figure), the area 
of the bottom face of the cut-out part will be made greater 
than that of the top of the hole from which it came {see 
the section, Fig. 11), and by seccotining the edges and 
possibly further securing the part from the back it will be 
possible to mount the cut-out part as a bevelled-edge 

170 




Fig. 10, — Design for Frame in Fretwork 



Fretwork in Wood 

overlay entirely covering the hole. But good workman- 
ship is absolutely essential, as the bevel must be uniform. 
In straight-sided patterns, some workers obtain a 
uniform bevel by wedging up the fretwork slightly 




Fig. 11, — Diagram showing the Use of Bevel-cutting 
in Appliqufi or Overlay Work 

at one side, the saw blade being kept perfectly 
upright, but should the wedges slip the bevel alters. 
Some fret-cutting machines have a tilting table which 
facilitates the cutting of bevels. Fire-screens can be 
well decorated in this manner. 



171 



GLEANING AND ADJUSTING A BICYCLE 

I TAKE it for granted that nearly every boy knows a 
great deal about his bicycle, and that in a chapter under 
the above heading he will look for information only on 
those points in which his acquaintance with his machine 
is not likely to have afforded him experience. Still, there 
are one or two matters, such as the repairing of a punc- 
ture, which I must dwell briefly upon, although to many 
my readers instruction on that point will be super- 
fluous. I shall take the case of a bicycle that has been 
running two or three years^ or which has come secondhand 
into your possession, and which would be all the better 
for a complete overhauling. True, the professional cycle 
repairer could probably do the work better than you can, 
but in taking your machine to bits, its mechanical anatomy 
will be impressed on your mind in a way you will never 
forget, and you will the better be enabled to remedy any 
trouble that might occur on the open road. 

The Parts of a Bicycle. — Every part of a bicycle 
has its own particular name. Look at Fig. 1, and you 
will at once identify the chief of its components — the 
top tube 1, the down tube or seat tube 2, the bottom 
tubci 4, and the head tube 3. In addition, there are the 
front fork blades 23 and the back fork blades 15. There 
are the front and rear wheels with rims 19, tyres 18, 

172 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

spokes 16, valves 17, and spoke nipples 24. To protect 
the rider from mud and dust, there are the front mud- 
guard 27, with its extension, and the rear mudguard 26. 
In the bottom bracket (at the junction of the seat tube 
and bottom tube) is the spindle, behind 35, carrying the 
chain wheel 21, the chain 20 transmitting the drive to 
the chain ring on the hub of the rear wheel. The handle- 
bars 7, with handles 8, are one with the steering tube 
which is clamped into the fork stem, this being a tube 
passing through the head tube 3 ; the lower end of the 
fork stem carries the fork crown and fork blades. The 
saddle 12, and tool wallet 13 are supported by the seat 
pillar 11, which enters and is clamped within the seat 
tube 2. In the bicycle illustrated are two rim brakes, 
both operated by hand ; 10 is the front brake forket 
and 25 the back brake forket, but, as you know, some 
bicycles have only one rim brake, and in addition a brake 
working within the rear hub and actuated by the chain 
when back pressure is applied to the pedals 22. In my 
opinion, no safer system of brakes has yet been devised 
than the hub-contained type, but there should always be 
a front rim brake as well. 

Gear." — Most boys will recognise the gear change 
control lever 28, and its cable 29, but I find that the 
general idea of what is meant by the " gear " of a bicycle 
is a very vague one, as well it might be. It is a term that 
dates back to those days when our fathers — in some cases 
our grandfathers — rode the "ordinary" machine with a 
big front wheel and a small back one. If that front wheel 
was 60 in. or 56 in. or 64 in. in diameter, then the gear of 
the machine was said to be " 60-in./' " 56-in.," or " 64-in." 

174 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

respectively. The distance travelled in one revolution of 
the pedals in those old front-driver machines was 3l times 
the diameter of the front wheel ; thus a 56-in. wheel 
travelled about 176 in. for every complete revolution of 
the pedals. Now, if you have a bicycle and by careful 
experiment find that one complete revolution of the 
pedals drives the machine forward 176 inches, you will 
know that your bicycle has a " gear " of 56, but it is an 
awkward experiment to carry out, and it is much more 
simple to work a little sum instead. Fig. 2 will show you 
how to set about it. First count the number of teeth on 
the chain wheel. Say it is 50. Take the diameter in 
inches of the back wheel ; say this is 22. Multiply the 
two together, 50 X 22 = 1100. Divide this by the number 
of teeth in the chain ring or sprocket on the back hub ; 
assume this to be 18. Then 1100 -^- 18 = 61 and a 
fraction^ and the machine is said to have a gear of 61. 

The higher the gear, the greater the strength required 
to push the machine up-hill or against the wind, and that 
is why boys' and ladies' machines are always geared lower 
than a man's. But the higher the gear, also, the greater 
the speed of the machine per revolution of the pedals, 
and the more convenient for running on a slight down- 
hill, or with the wind behind you. So it comes to this. 
Up-hill you want a low gear. Down-hill you can do with 
a high one. And it is this pleasant alternative which 
you get by installing a variable gear device or " change- 
speed gear," which is a box of cog-wheels built into the 
back hub, by means of which the leverage or mechanical 
advantage is increased or decreased. Whereas on a fixed 
gear machin<? you must negotiate all conditions of road 

175 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

and wind at the same gear ratio, on a variable gear machine 
you can select one of three (sometimes two) gear ratios to 
suit the circumstances of the moment. Now to the 
actual business of the overhauling. 

The Frams. — If the frame is dirty and mud has dried 
on it, don't rub it off violently or you will scratch the 
enamel. Sponge it off gently, wipe over with a cloth, 

and if you want to improve the appearance of the enamel, 

/ 




Fig. 2. — Diagram showing how to obtain " Gear " of Bicycle. 
Multiply Teeth in B by A, and divide by Teeth in C 

rub over with some good furniture cream. If the enamel 
is very badly chipped, you may decide to have the frame 
re-enamelled, or to give it a coat of air-drying enamel 
yourself. Several good makes are sold at any cycle shop, 
but you need a superior brush to get a good result, and 
more than one coat is advisable. If you have the time, 
it pays to rub over the first coat when it is thoroughly 
dry and hard with a felt pad sprinkled with fine pumice 
powder and moistened with water or oil. The result 
will be all the better too, if before the enamelling is 

176 



BICYCLE CLEANING AND ADJUSTING 




Bottom Uracket supported on box for the hammerinj 
out of Cotter Bolt 




Bicycle Suspended by Rope for ease in Oiling and Adjustment 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 



started you go over the old enamel with some fine 
emery paper. The use of some good oil-colour specially 
mixed up for you by a coach-painter and followed by a 
coat of the best oil varnish would give a better result than 
shop-bought " cycle enamel." 

Bearingfs. — For cleaning out the bearings, stand the 
machine on the saddle and handle-bar, or suspend it by 
a couple of ropes from two hooks fixed in the shed roof, 
and squirt petrol or paraffin oil into all the bearings 
repeatedly, and revolve the wheels so that the cleansing 





Fig. 3. — Crank End and 
Cotter Bolt 



Fig. 4. — Bottom Bracket 
with Cotter Bolt 



liquid can get everywhere. Paraffin and petrol do not 
improve rubber tyres, and if you propose a very copious 
application, you had better first remove the tyres. Work 
the pedals till all the paraffin, etc., is out, and then lubricate 
with good quality cycle oil or pure sperm oil alone. 

Test the bearings to see if there is any shake or play 
in them, and if there is tighten them up by means of the 
thin cone spanner. If you suspect a broken ball in any 
of them, listen carefully while the spindle revolves. There 
ought to be only the regular noise of the balls touching one 
another as they revolve, but if occasionally you hear a 
sharp click, you will know that one of the balls is frac- 
tured or the cone or cup is faulty. Then you must undo 

M 177 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the bearing with a spanner, but look out for trouble; 
and don't do the work on the lawn ; remember that the 
steel balls are liable to drop out quite suddenly, and it's 
an awful business finding them all. You can get new 
steel balls at a cycle shop or even a new ball-bearing cup 
in the unlikely event of one being needed, and if you 
have trouble — as you are sure to do — in keeping the balls 
in position when replacing them, try the effect of smearing 
them with plenty of vaseline, which will prevent their 
running about, but if you use much vaselinC; wash it out 




Fig. 5. — Bottom-bracket Axle or 
Spindle and the Cups 



afterwards with paraffin oil or petrol, as otherwise in cold 
weather the vaseline will be a clog on your progress. 

Adjusting the Bottom Bracket. — To make any ad- 
justment of the bottom-bracket bearing, it will first be 
necessary to take off the crank opposite to the chain side. 
Remove the nut (see Fig. 3) with a spanner, support the 
end of the crank on a block or anything solid, and drive 
out the wedged-in cotter bolt (shown separately) with a 
blow or two from a heavy hammer. (In replacing after- 
wards, note, of course, that the flat on the cotter will 
come against the flat on the axle or spindle, Fig. 5, which 
illustration shows the axle and the cups that keep the 
balls in place.) The crank having been removed, the cups 
are adjusted or removed by first loosening the nut of the 
bottom bracket cotter bolt (shown underneath in Fig. 4), 

178 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

and then turning the cup with a pin or peg spanner if 
there are two holes in the cup for the purpose, or with an 
ordinary spanner if there is a raised part with parallel 
edges. In taking out and replacing the balls and axle, 
carefully observe the precautions given in the preceding 
paragraph. 

The Chain. — Removing the chain is a simple pro- 
ceeding. Close examination will show that one or two 
of the pins consist really of a small screw-bolt and nut, 
and one of these may be removed by means of screw- 
driver and spanner. Replace the pin and nut in 
the loose end of the chain immediately after re- 
moval, as otherwise they are easily lost, and it is 
better to have at hand a tray in which to place the 
various screws and nuts as they are taken from the 
machine. All naked chains (those run without a gear-case) 
need occasional cleaning. Coil up the chain, place it in a 
dish, and pour over it paraffin, or a mixture of paraffin 
and petrol, leave it for twenty-four hours, and then hang 
up to drain. It is not easy, except by some such method 
as the following, to lubricate a chain thoroughly, oiling 
in the ordinary way or the rubbing on of chain greases 
being too superficial a treatment. It is better to make 
the cleaned chain thoroughly dry and place it in a dish 
containing Russian tallow or vaseline, or, instead, either 
of these mixed with graphite, which has been melted by 
heat. If the chain has been made warm, almost hot 
before immersion, the tallow will find its way to its in- 
ternals. After immersion, hang up the chain to dry, and 
wipe off the superfluous fat. 

A chain runs far better in a gear-case than it does 

179 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



slacken'' 
Nipples ; 
Here 



Tighten 
Nipples 
Hvre 



Tighten 
i Here 



naked, and lasts much longer ; when the gear-case is an 
oil-bath, the chain will very rarely require any treatment 
whatever. Very occasionally, indeed, a wash-out with 
paraffin and the replenishing of the lubricating oil are all 
that is necessary. Fig. 6 shows how 
to recognise signs of wear in a chain. 
Wneels out of Truth. — A frequent 
fault in a bicycle that has been in 
use for a long time is a lack of truth 
in the wheel rims. A fall may have 
loosened or broken a spoke, so up- 
setting the balance of tension. You 
have only to screw up some of the 
spokes a little tighter than those on 
the opposite side of the hub to 
destroy the balance oT 



I Slacken 
WHJ Here 



wheel and 



Fig. 7. — Diagram indi- 
cating In Dotted Lines 
the Sideways Bulging 
of a Cycle Wheel 



Slacken 

Nipples 
Here 




Fig. 8. — Diagram indicating in Dotted Lines 
a Lack of Circularity 

i8o 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 



distort the shape of the rim. Rims go out of shape 
in two ways — they may cease to be circular (Fig. 8), 
or they may bulge sideways (Fig. 7). The last trouble 
can be detected by rotating the wheel and support- 
ing a piece of chalk at the side on one of the chain 
stays quite close to the rim. Then any bulgy part will 
be marked by the chalk. By means of a spoke nipple key 
costing a trifle, slacken 
the nipples in the rim 
at the side marked by 
the chalk, and on the 
opposite side of the rim 
tighten up the spokes. 
Adjust a little at a time 
only, and test constantly 
until truth is restored. 
It is a job necessitating 
care and a nice judgment. 
To test whether a 
wheel has lost its cir- 
cularity — that is, whether 
it is out of the round — having first removed the tyre, 
rotate the wheel, and fasten a piece of wire across the 
forks close to the rim, and mark high places with chalk. 
At the parts where the rim bulges tighten up the spokes 
on both sides of the rim. Where the rim is low, slacken 
them, but be very careful and proceed with the utmost 
caution. Should an accident have smashed a spoke, a new 
one must be inserted before any tuning up is attempted. 
Take the old spoke with you when you buy the new one, 
so as to ensure getting the proper length and thickness. 

i8i 




Fig. 9.— Roller or Friction-type 

Free-wheel Clutch : A, chain ring ; 

B, balls ; C, rollers ; D, springs ; 

F, followers 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



In ordering new chain wheels, hubs, etc., it is necessary 
to give the " chain Hne " of the machine. You measure 
this from the centre of the rear wheel hub to the centre 
of the chain- wheel teeth. Thus a l|-in. chain-line hub 
measures that dimension from midway (generally the 
centre of the lubricator cap) between the flanges to the 
centre of the thickness of the chain-ring or sprocket. 

The "tread" of a bicycle is the overall length of the 

bottom - bracket axle. 
The "wheel base" is the 
length of the bicycle be- 
tween the centres of the 
two road wheels. The 
dimension of frame is the 
length of the down tube 
from its top to the centre 
of the bottom bracket, 
thus, "20 -in. frame," 
" 24-in. frame," etc. 

Pedals. — The replacc- 




Fig. 10.- 



Pawl and Ratchet Free- . c i i n i i 

wheel Clutch ment of an old pedal by 



a new one may prove to be a very puzzling business unless 
you remember the following : To remove the right-hand 
pedal turn the spanner to the left, anti-clockwise. To 
remove the left-hand pedal turn the spanner to the right, 
clockwise. You can easily see the reason why this should 
be so ; the screw-threads in each case are so arranged that 
the pressure of the foot tends to tighten the pedal, which 
would not be the case if the left-hand pedal had the 
ordinary right-hand thread. This hint does not apply to 
very old machines. 

182 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 



Pedals arc quite easily taken to pieces, as their con- 
struction is obvious^ and parts for replacement may be 
bought. 

Free-wheel Clutches. — Sometimes the free-wheel 
clutch in the back hub gives trouble. This may simply 
mean that it is choked up with old and dirty oil, but as a 
rule, it is a sign that something has worn out. Don't 
take it to pieces until you have satisfied yourself by 
squirting in plenty of 
paraffin or petrol that 
the failure is not due to 
dirt or gummed-up oil. 
Often the trouble is sim- 
ply a matter of weak 
springs, which can be re- 
placed at trifling cost ; 
or the friction rollers {see 
Fig. 9) may have worn 
badly, necessitating the 
purchase of new ones. 
In the more modern pawl 
and ratchet type (Fig. 
10), there are few springs and no rollers, and nothing is 
likely to go wrong if kept clean and well oiled. 

If you have a coaster hub on your machine, and we 
know of no more convenient brake, clean it out occa- 
sionally in the way described for the free-wheel clutch, 
and when all the liquid has drained off, apply plenty of 
lubricating oil. If you want to make a really good job of 
it, you will need to take the hub apart and see that the 
whole of the brake surfaces are amply treated with a very 

183 




Fig. 11. 



-Eccentric-disc Chain 
Adjustment 



Every Boy His/^Own Mechanic 

thick lubricant such as motor cylinder oil, stauffer grease, 
or some similar heavy lubricant. 

Chain Adjustment. — In putting the machine together 
again, see that the chain is correctly adjusted. There 
should be a very slight sag both top and bottom, and on 
no account should the chain be so loose that it can work 
off the sprockets or so tight that it makes the machine 
run hard. The method of setting the back wheel farther 
away from the bottom bracket is self-explanatory in most 
machines, but when for the first time you seek to adjust 
a machine having eccentric-disc adjustment (see Fig. 11) 
instead of the time-honoured screw-bolt and nut adjusters, 
you may be pardoned if you don't understand it at a 
glance. Two pairs of eccentric discs, one on each side 
are carried on the spindle of the rear wheel, and all that 
is necessary to advance the wheel slightly towards the 
chain wheel, or to push it farther away, is to loosen the 
nuts which hold the rear wheel in place and give the 
flattened end of the spindle a slight turn with a spanner. 
Not many bicycles have been fitted with this device in 
the past, but it possesses many advantages over the old 
system. 

The Plating. — What is to be done if the plating has 
got very rusty ? Not much, I am afraid, but you might 
try rubbing the plating with a rag made wet with sweet 
oil followed with metal polish. Of course, emery powder 
and paraffin oil rubbed on with a rag will remove the rust, 
but the plating will not be worth much afterwards, and 
then you can do one of three things : (1) Coat the plating 
with a cold lacquer such as Zapon, which is one of the cel- 
luloid varnishes ; this won't renew the plating, but it will 

184 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

prevent its getting much worse. (2) Give it a couple oi' 
coats of one of the metalHc paints, such as aluminium paint, 
which is a mixture of aluminium bronze and celluloid 
varnish. (3) Go over the whole of the plating with black 
enamel, and then pretend that yours is a "special all- 
weather" machine! If not one of these three appeals to 
you, then I can only suggest that you have all the bright 
parts re-plated, which is altogether too big a job to be 
done at home, and must be entrusted to a tradesman. 

If you are putting your bicycle away for any length 
of time, it is wise to smear the plated parts with vaseline, 
or, better still, to coat them with cold lacquer, which you 
can buy ready-made, or may prepare yourself by mixing 
I gill of acetone with | pint of amyl acetate, and in the 
mixture dissolving about | oz. of celluloid. Any colour- 
less scraps from broken toys, celluloid combs, etc., can be 
used. Keep the lacquer tightly stoppered when not in 
use. 

Removing Tyres. — Finally a brief explanation of 
tyre-repairing, a job, I suppose, to which almost every 
cyclist has been introduced. A common trouble is for 
the tyre to get soft within a few hours of pumping up. 
The job is first to remove the outer cover, next to find the 
puncture, then to repair it, and finally to replace the 
cover. But first make certain the valve is not at fault. 
Rotate the wheel until the valve is at the top, and then 
lift a wineglass or egg-cup nearly full of water so that the 
valve is immersed. Bubbles of air immediately betray 
a leaky valve, and a new valve rubber will then be 
necessary. 

You will know that some covers have wire edges 

185 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

(Fig. 12) whilst others are simply thickened up or beaded 
(Fig. 13), the second being more easily removed and 
replaced than the first. Remove the valve stem by un- 
screwing the nut so as to empty the tyre. The tools for 
removing the cover may be a set of special tyre levers 
bent and notched, which are very convenient, or may be 
the handles of two old tooth brushes. Starting at a point 
diametrically opposite the valve, insert two levers about 
4 or 5 in. apart under the tyre edges, and apply leverage 
so that the edge is lifted off the rim. Then by holding 





Fig. 12. — Wired-edge Tyre Fig. 13. — Beaded-edge Tyre 

down one lever or catching a notched lever on a spoke, 
the other can be slid along and the edge released all the 
way round. The job is sometimes very much more difficult 
than the above explanation might suggest, very much 
depending upon the fit of the tyre and how long it takes 
you to acquire the knack. Some people can use smooth 
pennies as tyre removers, and others can do the work 
without any tools at all except their fingers. Others 
again, use screw-drivers and cut up the outer cover, and 
stab holes in the tube ! 

Patching the Tubes. — Now pull out the inner tube. 
Replace the valve stem and nut, and partly inflate. Have 
at hand a bowl of water on a stool, and pass the tube a 

1 86 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

few inches at a time through the water, slightly stretching 
the rubber as you go. There will be no doubt as to 
whether there is a puncture when you arrive at it. There 
will be a stream of bubbles rising from the tyre to the 
surface of the water. Sometimes a tyre is punctured in 
two distinct places at the same time, and it is generally 
wise to test the whole of it. Mark the puncture when 
found with chalk or pencil, and wipe dry. 

We are now going to cement on a little patch., but 
there is a white powdery stuff on the surface of the rubber 
to which the cement or solution does not readily adhere, 
so the first thing to do is to dress round the puncture 
with glasspaper or emery paper until good solid rubber 
is reached. From a tube of solution (pure unvulcanised 
rubber shredded and dissolved in pure benzine), squeeze out 
a blob, and rub it thinly over the dressed surface with a 
match-stick. Have at hand a piece of old rubber tyre, or, 
better still, a piece of patching rubber, which is a reason- 
ably cheap material. Coat this with solution thinly in 
the same way; first, in the case of old rubber, working 
over it with glasspaper or emery paper as before. 

The whole point of the operation is contained in the 
next instruction. Do not bring the patch into its position 
yet awhile. Let it wait until the solution is almost dry. 
Actually, it will be what is known as " tacky," that is, 
although it will appear to be dry, it will adhere to the 
thumb-nail rather forcibly. Not until this stage is 
reached should the patch be put on, and if you are doing 
the work for the first time you will be surprised at the 
way in which the two solutioned surfaces cling together. 
It is with difficulty that they can be torn apart. Press 

187 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the two to exptl any bubbles of air, and dust all over 
plentifully with french chalk so as to destroy the 
adhesiveness of any solution remaining at the margin of 
the patch. 

Cover Repairing. — Next work the fingers all round the 
inside of the outer cover slowly and carefully to try to find 
any nail, sharp flint, etc., that may have caused the punc- 
ture. Failure to do this is simply to run the risk of another 
puncture almost immediately. 

If the cover is faulty, with a nasty cut on the outside 
where a flint or piece of glass has entered, it, too, should 
be repaired thoroughly. Clean it with a rag or old tooth- 
brush dipped in petrol or benzine (avoid the use of paraffin 
on tyres), and then work into the cut one, two or three 
coats of solution, allowing about a quarter of an hour 
between them, so that one may dry before the next is 
applied. At the cycle depot, you can purchase some soft 
prepared rubber known as "tyre stopping," and a little 
of this can be well pressed into the prepared cut, and 
left for at least a day or two before the tyre is used. If 
you cannot get tyre stopping, you can make a fair sub- 
stitute by mixing some cotton wool with rubber solution. 

If the fabric on the underside of the cover has rotted 
or been badly damaged, it will be only a waste of time to 
stop the cut unless you also go to the trouble of cementing 
some new canvas in position at the back. Use a fairly 
large piece of the specially proofed canvas obtainable at a 
cycle depot; clean the place with petrol, apply a coat of 
solution to cover the proofed side of the canvas, and 
allow to dry. Then apply a second coat, and when the 
right condition of tackiness is reached, bring the two 

1 88 



Cleaning and Adjusting a Bicycle 

together and firmly press. Use plenty of french chalk 
to kill any surplus solution, as otherwise when the 
cover is replaced the tyre might stick to it and cause 
a burst. 

Replacing the Tyre. — Tube and cover having been 
thoroughly overhauled, we have next to get the tube 
back into its position. First place the valve tube through 
the hole in the rim and carefully work the tube into 
position. Tuck in the cover at the valve, and for a foot 
each side of it, and slightly screw up the lock-nut on the 
valve so that the cover can move only slightly. 

In putting a new rubber sleeve on a valve stem, 
slightly wet the metal and insert it into the sleeve with 
a twisting motion. Screw up the valve nuts tight. 

The one thing to be watched for in replacing the cover 
is to avoid pinching the tube. Pinches mean ugly gashes 
and repeated exasperation 

With the fingers work the cover into position al- 
ternately on each side of the valve until only a few inches 
remain to be got into place. Sometimes the fingers are 
alone sufficient to finish the job. but generally some 
amount of persuasion with a smooth lever is necessary to 
get the edge over the rim. Fit up the valve completely, 
tighten the lock-nut, and give a few strokes to the pump 
so as very slightly to inflate the tyre. Now go carefully 
round the rim with the fingers and make certain that the 
tube is not nipped anywhere. Thus assured, you can 
give a few more strokes to the pump or even inflate fully. 

New tape should be put round the rim over the spoke 
heads when necessary, as this is a great protection to the 
rubber tube, iron rust having a bad effect on rubber. 

189 



GILDING WITH GOLD LEAF AND 
GOLD PAINT 



In the decoration of picture frames and other work not 
many boy mechanics will aspire to real gilding, so I pro- 
pose to touch upon it only briefly. The gold in a variety 
of colours is obtainable in the form of leaf. As you 
know, gold can be beaten out so finely that 280,000 leaves 
will be required to make a thickness of 1 in. Gold leaf 

is obtained in 
books each about 
3 in. square, con- 
taining 25 leaves 
of gold, which can 
be transferred to 
a washleather pad 
(Fig. 1) by means 
of a little flat brush 
known as a tip (Fig. 2), which is passed once or twice 
over the hair of the head to give it the mere suspicion of 
greasiness. The gold leaf as it lies on the washleather 
pad is cut into strips, etc., by means of a long 
flexible blunt-edged knife (Fig. 3), and is transferred 
fiom the cushion by means of the tip to the woik, 
which previously has been specially prepared. Sur- 
faces to be gilded need to be coated with oil paint, 

190 




Fig. 1.— Cushion for Holding Gold Leaf 



Gilding with Gold Leaf and Gold Paint 

preferably of a yellow colour, or with size containing 
chrome pigment, the object being to build up a solid 
surface and to stop the suction of the material. Before 
laying the gold leaf the work must be given a coat of 
gilder's oil gold size, which must be bought ready made. 
Every part of the surface must be gone over sparingly 

and evenly, but the 
gold leaf should not 
be applied until after 
several hours have 
elapsed, the actual 
period varying with 
the temperature and 
with the grade of size 
used. Probably at the 
end of twelve hours, 
if not long before, the 
size will be ready to 
receive the gold leaf. 
To test it, touch it with the ball of the thumb. 
If it prove to be " tacky," the thumb is not 
wetted by the size, and the surface is not dis- 
turbed by the thumb, you may regard the size as 
being in the correct condition, and the gold may be 
laid upon it, each strip slightly overlapping the earlier 
one, and the whole /-m;- 
being afterwards 
lightly gone over 




Fi^- ?.— Tip for Lifting and Applying 
Gold Leaf 



Fig. 3.— Knife for Cutting Gold Leaf 



with a pad of cotton wool covered with soft clean muslin. 
Afterwards brush over with a soft brush and a bright 
appearance will indicate a satisfactory job ; but if the 

191 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

gold is lustreless and smeary the size was not tacky enough 
and the job must be left for many hours longer, and, if 
necessary, coated again with size, left for a period of time 
as to which you will be guided by your first experience, 
and the whole given a second coat of gold leaf. Two- 
coat work has a more solid appearance than the one-coat, 
of course. 

The above process has its many difficulties. Gold 
leaf is most difficult stuff to handle,, the slightest breath of 
air disturbs it, and it is easily damaged in course of laying. 
It is much easier to use gold transfer paper, which is sold 
in the form of books of beeswaxed paper, to which the 
gold leaf is adhering. The work is prepared by painting 
or sizing and finally gold-sizing exactly as before, and the 
transfer paper is applied face downwards and rubbed on 
the back to cause the gold to leave the waxed paper 
and cling to the sized surface. 

Probably you will come to the conclusion that if you 
want a gilt effect on woodwork, plaster, etc., you will 
use the far cheaper and easier gold paint, which is simply a 
finely powdered metallic alloy of golden colour mixed with 
a suitable liquid. The bought gold paints used to be far 
superior to anything that could be mixed up at home. 
The difficulty was the liquid or medium. I used to ex- 
periment with thin french polish, but the result was very 
" brassy." All sorts of things have been tried, but the 
vehicle or medium used nowadays and certainly the most 
successful of all is celluloid varnish made by dissolving 
I oz. of finely shredded transparent celluloid in 9 or 10 oz. 
of amyl acetate, a liquid you will recognise by its " pear- 
drop " odour; indeed, it is used as jargonelle-pear essence. 

192 



Gilding with Gold Leaf and Gold Paint 

Ask for the best "French flake gold bronze powder." 
You will find | oz. of it go a long way, and you will simply 
mix it with the celluloid varnish as you need the paint, 
because the varnish (highly inflammable) is useful for lots 
of other things. Just as in gold leaf gilding, the effect of 
gold paint is very much enhanced if the work has been 
properly prepared beforehand. A dark ground will rob 
the paint of its solid appearance, and if there is much 
gold painting to be done, say a set of picture frames, it 
would be best to get from a coach painter a small quantity 
of a varnish paint made up with orange or middle chrome 
pigment. Coach painters are clever people at mixing 
paint and will be able to give you just what you want, 
but if you have any difficulty, get from a decorator's 
supply store a small tube of orange or middle chrome paste 
paint, and mix this to a suitable consistency with a medium 
or vehicle consisting of boiled linseed oil 4 parts, best 
oak varnish 2 parts, and genuine turpentine 1 part. Apply 
this to the glass-papered surface, and allow at least a 
day for drying, Rub out brush marks with worn glass- 
paper used lightly, and if you think it necessary give it 
another coat of paint, allowing the same time to dry, 
and smoothmg out any brush marks as before. Dust 
the work, and then apply the gold paint with a camel- 
hair or sable brush. 

Silver and aluminium bronze powders for making 
silver and aluminium paints cap also be bought. 



193 



MAKING MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINTS 

An "Open" Mortise. — I cannot hope to show you in 
this chapter how to make all the various kinds of mortise- 
and-tenon joints. There are actually scores of varieties, 
and I can afford space to deal with only two or three of 
the commonest but, at the same time, most important 
kinds. A mortise-and-tenon joint connecting the ends of 
two pieces of framework {see Fig. 1) is known as an open 
joint, the end grain of both of the pieces being visible, as 
shown. The mortise itself is open, and does not con- 
stitute a box, as it does in the closed type, which I shall 
take as my second example. 

I must assume that you have planed up the work 
parallel and trued the ends. With a square carry round 
on all four sides of the stuff and on both members of the 
joint the shoulder lines which will indicate in one case 
the depth of the mortise and in the other case the length 
of the tenon. Now, with a gauge set to one-third the 
thickness of the stuff, mark the two sides and ends, as 
shown in Fig. 2, and before proceeding further, mark with 
a pencil cross those parts that are to be removed — the 
middle part of the mortise piece, the two outer parts of 
the tenon piece. I attach great importance to indicating 
the waste in this way. May I confess that I have attached 
that importance ever since the day when I spoiled a table 

194 



Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 



framework by thoughtlessly cutting through a tenon 
instead of through the waste at the side of it. It taught 
me a lesson which I should like you to learn at less 
expense than my mistake meant to me. 

First let us make the mortise, which is in this case 




Fig. 1.— ' 



Open'' Mortise-and-tenoii 
Joint 




Fig. 4. — Second Position 
of Chisel in Removing 
Waste. 




Fig. 5.— EflFect of Taking Chips 
from Both Sides 



Fig 3. — Starting to 
Remove Waste of 
Mortise 



merely an open slot. Place the work upright in the bench 
vice, and with extreme care run in a fine saw on the waste 
side — the inside — of the setting out lines. We are going 
to remove the piece of waste with a chisel. Placing it in 
the position shown in Fig. 3, but not quite as far back as 
the shoulder line, drive it in with a hammer or mallet 

195 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

for I in. or so. Then withdraw it, and re-insert in such 
a way as to cut a V-shaped chip from the waste. Drive 
in the chisel still farther vertically, and take another 
slanting cut so as to remove more waste. Repeat until 
a V-shaped slot half the depth of the stuff has been formed. 
Turn the piece over and do the same from the other edge, 
thus detaching a piece of waste of the shape shown in 
the cut-away view, Fig. 5. Next, with a chisel in perfectly 
keen condition, pare the bottom of the slot right up to 
the shoulder line. 

The above is the slowest method of doing the work. 
It is much quicker to use a brace and twist-bit, running 
the bit into the work close to the shoulder line as illus- 
trated in Fig. 6, but note that the bit must be slightly less 
in diameter than the width of the mortise, and the slot 
must be finished with a keen chisel as before. 

As it is not every boy mechanic who possesses a mortise 
gauge, I have described in the foregoing a method of 
setting out a joint with an ordinary marking gauge, 
which gauge, by the way, must be used from the same 
face of the work all the time; otherwise, if the wood 
varies in thickness the tenon will not fit the mortise. 
The use of a mortise gauge makes for better and more 
accurate results and it is usual to set its two marking 
points to the width of the chisel that will be used for 
cutting the mortise, particularly in making a closed 
mortise, where, of course the saw cannot be used. Fig. 7 
shows how the mortise gauge is set to the width of the 
chisel, the gauge being altered by turning the thumb- 
screw shown at the end of the stem. One of the two points 
is fixed, and the other is controlled by the thumb-sere r 

196 



Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 



but the screw in the square part (the stock) must first be 
loosened. The stock is then slid into its proper position, 
according to the dimensions of the stuff, and secured 
there by tightening its screw. 





Fig. 6. — Removing Mortise Waste 
with Twist-bit 





Fig. 7. — Setting Points of Mortise 
Gauge to width of Chisel 



Figs. 8 and 9.— Home- 
made Mortise Gauge 



A substitute for the mortise gauge is the little home- 
made device shown in Figs. 8 and 9, which scarcely needs 
description. It costs nothing except the trouble of making, 
but the two sharp nails constitute fixed points, and you 
will need to make a separate gauge for every different 
thickness of stuff worked or width of mortise required. 

Next we will proceed with the shaping of the tenon on 
the end of the other piece of stuff. It has already been 
set out with marking gauge, mortise gauge, or a home- 
made scratch gauge as above described. Fix the piece in 

197 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the bench screw, and saw down on or slightly outside 
the lines drawn on the end grain, and then cut on the 
shoulder lines from opposite faces so as to detach two 
pieces of waste. 

A "Closed" Mortise. — The closed form of mortise- 
and-tenon joint is shown in Fig. 10. Some readers might 
think that the name ought more properly to be applied to 
a joint in which the tenon does not go right through the 
mortised member, but a joint of that particular kind 
would be known as a shouldered, stump or stub mortise- 
and-tenon. 

The setting out of the open joint is practically as 





Fig. 10.—" Closed " Mortise- 

and-Tenon Joint Fig. 10a, — Model Joint Set Out 

before described, and in the case of the tenon the setting 
out and cutting are exactly so. The extent of the mortise 
will be set out on all four sides of the work, but its actua 
opening will be set out on the two edges only. Note that 
the gauge must be used from the same face of the work 
all the time. Fig. 10a shows a model joint set out. 

A quick method of cutting the mortise is to make 
with brace and twist-bit a series of holes close together or 
slightly overlapping, so removing the bulk of the waste 
and leaving the mortise to be finally trimmed by means 
of a keen chisel ; but this is not the time-honoured method 
employed in general joinery work, and it needs to be 
pointed out that unless the boring be done absolutely at 

iq8 



Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 









right angles to the edge there is a grave risk of spoiling 

the job. The usual method, therefore, is to cut out the 

mortise by means of a series of chips, the work being held 

down firmly on the bench, for which purpose the work is 

placed on the edge of the bench alongside the bench vice c 

(Fig. 11), and held tightly down by means of an L-shaped 

piece A, which presses upon a packing piece b, and is 

itself held tightly by the vice. By adopting some such 

arrangement as this both hands are free to hold the tools 

and there is no risk of a sudden movement of the work. 

The cutting out of 

^^ j — ..•-' 

the mortise is started / /" -"---. y' ..•- 

by making a little 
V-shaped notch with 
a chisel right in the 
middle of the waste. 
(Note the exact posi- 
tion of the chisel in 
Fig. llA.) This is 
enlarged at every 
chip {see Figs. 12 and 
13, which, of course 
are cut - away views) 
until the mortise has 
been cut out clean and 
square. The whole of the cutting cannot be con- 
veniently done from one edge, so when half the 
waste has been removed it is well to turn the work 
over and repeat the process from the other. It will 
be found in practice that a series of wedge-shaped 
chips are formed, and these will be required to be levered 

199 




Fig. 11. — Cutting Closed Mortise 
in Wood held down by t -piece 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



out. The proper tool for this work is a mortise chisel, 
which is a thicker, stronger tool than the ordinary firmer 
chisel. Take particular note that the ends of the mortise 
are finished with the bevel of the chisel directed toward 
the mortise so as to produce a clean vertical cut, as in 
Fig. 14. 

The above instructions will answer quite well, if in- 





Fig. Ua. — Starting to 
Remove Waste of 
Mortise 



Fig. 13.— Taking the 

Next Cut 




Fig. 12.— Method of 
Removing Chips 
from Mortise 




Fig. 14. — Finishing 
Mortise Vertically 



terpreted with reasonable intelligence, for the making of 
shouldered tenons {see Fig. 15) ; generally the mortise 
will go about half-way through the work, and the length 
of the tenon will correspond, but make the tenon just a 
shade shorter than the hole is deep. 

Wedging Joints. — Very frequently mortises are 
slightly under-cut, so as to produce a dovetail effect, and 

zoo 



Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 



the ends of the tenon are sawn down with the grain, and 
wedges are inserted, as shown in Figs. 16 and 17. The 





tig. 15. — Shouldered Tenon 

Fig. 15a. — Wedged Tenon 

combined thickness of these wedges must not exceed the 

amount by which the mortise has been under-cut. Then 

on inserting just the points of the wedges in the saw-cuts 

the two parts of the joint 

can be driven together 

forcibly, with the result < 

that the wedges will L.. 

spread the tenon in the 

mortise and form a 

dovetail. This is known 

as "fox- wedging," but 

the usual method of 

wedging the ordinary 

" closed " joint in which 

the mortise goes right 

through the work is to 

drive in wedges from 




Figs. 16 end 17.— 
Tenon 



Fig. 17 
Fox-wedded 



20I 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




Fig. 18. — Marking Tenon for 
Draw-boring 



the opposite side over and under the tenon^ the 
wedges being as wide as the tenon is thick, as 
shown in Fig. 15a. 

Pinning Joints. — When wedging is not adopted, the 

ordinary way of securing a 
mortise-and- tenon joint is 
with a wooden pin, and there 
is a particular method of 
inserting this to ensure that 
the tenon is drawn well 
home. It is known as 
" draw-boring." The joint 
having been made and 
fitted, it is taken apart 
and a twist-bit is passed 
right through the cheeks 
of the mortise ; the tenon 
is re-inserted, the bit 
replaced, and its point 
allowed to make a mark 
on the tenon, as suggested 
in the cut - away view 
(Fig. 18). Next the tenon 
is removed, and the twist- 
bit placed very slightly 
nearer the shoulder, as in 
Fig. 19, and a hole bored 
through. When the joint 




Fig. 19. —The Boring Bit Placed 
Slightly Nearer Shoulder 




Fig. 20. — Draw-bore Holes 
not in Line 



Fig. 21.— Pin for Joint 



is again put together there will be a hole through the 
two cheeks of the mortise and also through the tenon, 
but it will not be a straight one {see Fig. 20). By 



202 



Making Mortise-and-Tenon Joints 

driving in an oak pin (Fig. 21) from one side of the 
mortise, the tenon will be tightly cramped up, but it 
may first be necessary to draw the joint together 
with a steel pin, afterwards replacing it with the 
wooden one. 

If you try this method, do not forget the following pre- 
cautions : Don't overdo it by making the distance by 
which the hole in the tenon is out of alignment too great, 
or, instead of cramping up the joint, the forcible driving 
home of the pin may split a piece from the tenon, or at 
any rate spoil the pin. Secondly, see that when you shift 
the bit for boring you place it nearer the shoulder and 
not farther away from it, as has been done many hundreds 
of times. 



203 



BUILDING A CARDBOARD MODEL L. & S.W.R. 
EXPRESS LOCOMOTIVE 

By Henry Greenly 

Before the boy mechanic essays to build a model loco- 
motive he should know something of the various types 
from which he may choose. All the larger railway com- 
panies possess characteristic designs of locomotives each 
suited to the work allotted to it. They are classified by 
the wheel arrangement, as indicated in the diagram 
(Fig. 1), the numeral system being adopted to distinguish 



o Q^ ooQOO 

2-4.-0 4^ - e - o 

0-6-0 q--6-2, 

O- 8-0 2.6.0 

ooGQo noOQ 

Or - ^- Z. 4-. 4.-0 

OQQQQ OQQQO 



2,-g-O 2-6-2 



Fig. 1. — Diagram Explaining Wheel Classification of Locomotives 

204 




205 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



the types. The most common for express trains is the 
four-coupled bogie engine termed the " 4 — 4 — " type 
and for the subject matter of this chapter a model of one 
of this class has been chosen. A " 4 — 4 — " arrange- 
ment is included in the diagram (Fig. 1) and a picture 

of a model loco- 
_j motive of this 

identical class is 
presented in one 
of the photo- 
graphic plates. 

In model work 
there are several 
standard gauges. 
Model locomo- 
tives in the 
smaller gauges 
are, of course, 
the least expen- 
sive, and require 
simpler tools to 
make. The gauges 
(always measured 
between the rails) 
vary between No. 
(IJ in.) and 15 
in. for garden and 
estate models, 
the four smaller 
sizes having the 
designating 
2o6 




Building a Model Locomotive 

numeral (Nos. 0, 1, 2 or 3 as the case may be) in addition 
to the dimensions. The following table will be helpful in 
understanding and in choosing among model locomotives 
in all the more common dimensions. 



TABLE OF GAUGES AND SCALES FOR MODEL LOCOMOTIVES 



No. 



Gauge 
m in.) 



No. 1 (l|in.) 



No. 2 (2 in.) 



No. 3 (2i in ) 



3J in. gauge 
3i in. gauge 
4| in gauge 

() in. gauge 
7i in. gauge 
9 J in gauge 
15 in. gauge 



Scale 
7 mm. to 1 ft. 
(about 5'f tl' full size) 



10 mm. to 1 ft. 
(about jSjlh full size) 



1 U mm. to 1 ft. 
or ^'^ in. to 1 ft. 
(about rtVth full size) 



13 mm. to 1 ft. 
i in. to 1 ft. 
(^th full size) 



Uin. to 1ft. 
f in. to 1 ft. 

1 in to 1 ft. 

IJin. to 1 ft. 
liiii. to 1 ft. 

2 in. to 1 ft. 

3 in. to 1 ft. 



Eminently suitable for indoor 
railways where space is limited 
or where a big railway scheme 
is intended. Locomotives can 
be driven by clockwork or elec- 
tricity. A few steam models 
have been made for this gauge. 

The best gauge lor electrical, 
steam and clockwork loco- 
motives for indoor model rail- 
ways. 

The largest size advisable for 
an indoor railway. Most suit- 
able small size for steam and 
electric locomotives. 
The smallest outdoor size ad- 
visable 

This gauge is not being de- 
veloped very much for indoor 
lines or for clockwork loco- 
motives. 

The amateur steam locomotive 
builders' favourite gauge, es- 
pecially where the railway 
portion of the equipment is of 
secondary importance. 
The best small outdoor size. 

These sizes are suited to exhi- 
bition models, made by skilled 
mechanics 

F'or gaiden and estate model 
railways carrying passengers 
and goods. 

A full engineering equipment 
is required to produce models 
in these scales. 



207 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

The foregoing table is not only useful in preventing an 
inexperienced worker from making a locomotive to some 
odd scale and gauge, but will enable him to fix upon a size 
to which he can construct locomotives of progressive 
degrees of completeness and workmanship. For instance, 
should the No. 3 (2| in.) gauge be decided upon, the first 
locomotive may be a simple shunting engine running on 
four or six wheels. When successfully finished and more 




B 

Fig. 4. — Wooden 
Wheel (A) and Card- 
board Wheel (b) 



Driving and Coupled Wheel, 
with Boss 



skill and further tools have been acquired, an express 
engine of more complicated character may be attempted, 
and both of the engines will be available on the same 
track. Once the locomotive hobby is started there is 
little or no finality in it, and therefore the basis of the 
work — namely the size of the line of railwaj^ — needs to 
be earnestly considered at the outset. 

For the average novice the indoor railway is usually 
the least difficult proposition, and while the smallest 
gauge (No. 0) may be adopted, No. 1 (If in.) gauge will be 
found to provide a size which is not expensive in the 

208 



MODEL LOCOMOTIVE, STATION AND 
SIGNALS 







Model L, & S.W. Express Locomotive 




Model Railway Station 




Model Locomotive, Rolling Stock, Signals, etc. 



Building a Model Locomotive 




Gauge 



Fiji. 6. — Front Elevation of Model 
Locomotive 



or electric locomotive, 
in which case tin plate, 
strip metal, and solder 
would take the place of 
cardboard, wood strips, 
and glue. 

Figs. 2, 3, 6, 7, and 
8 show dimensioned the 
leading features of a 
No. 1 (If in.) gauge 
model L. &S.W. R. 
" 4 — 4 — " type express 
locomotive with a 
double - bogie tender. 
The engine is extremely 
o 



matter of materials and 
not too small to be diffi- 
cult to construct. We 
will therefore consider 
first the building of a 
model cardboard loco- 
motive. Such a model 
may afterwards be 
altered to run by clock- 
work or electricity if a 
suitable motor is ob- 
tained. 

The drawings are 
sufficiently correct in 
detail to be used for 
an all-metal clockwork 




Fig 
209 



. 7. — Front Elevation of Model 
Tender 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



















_J 






.f^ 


■*l 




Kw~^ 


^l?i 




-1 






— 


1 

1 


- 








fVJ 






' f 


1 




• 


^^'*n 




' 


^ 




1 










■9/ 




2 


1- 

to 






1 








1 








\ 




^. 




_IM 






1 








1^ 

8" 






















"n: 






















i? 










) ■ 






CM 






















1= 


r 


=r^. 


_-_=J 


U- 


J. 


_ 



= ^ 



2IO 



neat and simple in 
outline. There are no 
outside cylinders or 
valve motions to 
model, and supplied 
with a clockwork 
motor a very success- 
ful locomotive should 
result. Only two dia- 
meters of wheels are 
employed on the whole 
machine, which fact 
also simplifies the 
work. 

Wheels. — For a 
cardboard model the 
first and most import- 
ant consideration is 
the making of the 
wheels. Suitable metal 
wheels with proper 
spokes and coupling- 
rod boxes may, in 
normal times, be ob- 
tained, but, failing 
these, there are two 
good methods of mak- 
ing wheels. They may 
be turned in hard wood 
as at A (Fig. 4) ; box 
or beech i wood will 



Building a Model Locomotive 

give the best results. Or the wheels may be built 
up out of discs of cardboard glued together as shown in 
the section b (Fig. 4). In either arrangement the 
spokes, of course, will be absent. In the case of card- 
board wheels, to provide for the flange the disc at the back 
should be nearly J in. bigger in diameter than the diameter 
of the wheel on the tread. For the driving and coupled 
wheels the pear-shaped bosses which embrace the coupling- 
rod pins will require to be added ; these may be cut out 
and applied to the face of the wheel. Even with the 
wooden wheels this will have to be done {see Fig. 5), as 
it is impossible to turn bosses of this shape. 

Main Frames. — The main frames are shown in Figs. 8 
and 8a, those of the bogies being separate structures. 
To reduce work, the engine and tender bogies have been 
made of similar construction, the wheel-base (distance 
between the wheels, centre to centre) being smaller in 
the case of the tender bogies ; the long slot for the bogie 
pin and the dummy equalising spring gear are omitted. 
The side frames of the engine are rather complicated by 
the fact that at the front bogie the underside of the foot- 
plate is quite clear except for the edging. This is to give 
room for the bogie to rotate and swing. 

The footplates and panels should be made of stout 
Bristol board or other close-grained white card. The 
only slots in the footplates are those required to clear the 
coupled wheels {see h. Fig. 8). Some strip wood, -^' in. 
by \ in. section, is required for the edging (e d), and 
\ in. by -^ in. stuff for the crosspieces (c p) and other 
stiffening blocks. The outlines of all these blocks and 
all centre lines should be drawn on the pieces of card used 

211 




u 



O " 

a : 



n 



fl5 -^ 



o 15 



U .> 





o 


Qi) 


a 


H 


o 


cs 




^ 


o 


b 


^ 


•a 


pii 


en 


^ 




c« 


'$ 


=« 


o 


^ 


« 




^ 




& 




u 








> 





o 



b 



312 



Building a Model Locomotive 

for the frames and footplating. Between the crosspieces 
c p and c p, the strip work shown at m p and c b (Figs. 8 
and 8a) may be added to stiffen up the footplate and also 

to represent the motion 

,C(> ^ ^' ■ ' 



T, 



J- 



i 



L 



A6 



\ Axle 



Sidt ^ramts 
foot bio re 

'so 

WheeJs 



plate and slide bars of 
the real engine. 

Coupled Wheels, 
Bogie, etc. — The detail 
drawings of main axle- 
boxes (Figs. 9 and 10) 
show the arrangement of 
the coupled wheels in the 
frame. By using slotted 
axleboxes instead of plain 
drilled holes it is possible to fit up the wheels on their 
axles and then put them into place complete, securing 
them by a " keep " plate (strip wood, metal or card), as 
shown at k. 

Fig. 10 is a view of the back of the engine from the 



Fig. 9. — Section showing Details of 
Axleboxes, Frames, etc. 



f^ 



8P 

(eac/f) 




£0 ^ Foot p/oTej Ax/QboKCs 

Fig. 10. — View of Rear End of Engine from 
Underside, showing Axleboxes, etc. 

underside. Fig. 9 is a sectional view of the frames and 
front main axlebox, showing how the side frames are 

213 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



continued below the footplate level to a point which just 
overlaps the frame of the leading bogie. The latter 
structure is illustrated by Fig. 11. The framing consists 
of three pieces of card secured together by angle-blocks 
in the inside top corners. The spring work (equalisers, 
etc.) is, in this case, mere ornament applied to the out- 
side. To obtain the relief, the parts may be built up in 
layers ; for instance, three layers would make the equalisers 
and one and two the springs underneath. For the axle- 

Slot -for bm 

Oncjfe ' ^ 

blocKs 




equi/iyrs 



Fig. 11. — Details of Leading Bogie 



'ax^eboKes 



boxes wood blocks are suggested, but, of course, four or 
more layers of card may be employed. 

Boiler. — The boiler barrel may be made out of a 
piece of flat card over a good round postal tube, curtain- 
pole or anything similar. The diameter of the boiler 
barrel is given as 2^ in., so that the tube bar or pole 
chosen should measure as nearly as possible 2| in. diameter 
outside. If a postal tube is employed it may, of course, 
be cut to length and left inside the boiler barrel to stiffen 
the whole structure. The front end of the barrel has an 
additional wrapper strip w (Fig. 8a) the width of the 
smokebox glued on to it. The firebox end is opened out 

314 



Building a Model Locomotive 

as indicated ; the rear end of the firebox sides f s being 
retained to the shape required by a flat piece of wood 
about J in. thick, cut out to fit inside. This piece of 
wood F E (firebox end) should project slightly, and the 
outer edge should be rounded as shown in Fig. 8a. 

Funnel and Dome. — The funnel and dome {see 
Fig. 12) are best turned out of beech or box wood to the 
shape as shown, and if no lathe is available the builder 
must rely on the help of a pattern-maker or wood turner. 
If turned in box or other similar close-grained Avood the 




Hofef>, 
Fig. 12. — Funnel Turned from Wood 




tvhirenint) 
Stucco 



Fig. 13. — Funnel Shaped 
from Composition 



saddling of the underside of these mountings may be 
done with the file, the base curves at the sides being 
modified with the same tool. The other alternative is to 
turn them straight down with a dowel pin out of the solid, 
and then to form the base curves with a stucco made of 
whitening and hot glue {see Fig. 13). When dry, this 
mixture, if there is enough whitening in it, can be carved 
with a penknife or filed to shape. The safety valves on 
the top of the dome should be of bright brass, also the 
whistle. Oddments may be worked up into these, or 
cheap dummy fittings may perhaps be bought. In 
referring to scrap it is always advisable for the amateur 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

model maker to collect odd fittmgs, old clocks, instru- 
ments, bits of other small machinery, etc., for future use. 
Tender. — The tender is a simple box structure, 
which is strong in itself, the side framing b s F (Fig. 3 
and 14) underneath being necessary only to overlap the 
bogie frames and give the undergear a solid appearance. 
The bogie frames are shown in Fig. 15, and their attach- 
ment is indicated in the sectional drawing (Fig. 3). A 
plain pivot hole only (instead of the slot necessary in an 




Fig, 14. — Details of Model Tender 



engine bogie) is required in the case of a double-bogie 
vehicle. The pivot is a screw which engages in a block 
of wood inside the tender body. In building up the 
body, angle blocks of wood may be freely used to unite 
the cardboard "plates" forming the sides, ends, etc 
The coal space has a sloping bottom, and the coal rail 
may be built up out of wire or a strip of card may be glued 
on the top edge, and the rails represented by drawing 
wide black lines on the card to represent the spaces 
between the rails. 

Completion of Model.^ — When complete any rough 
edges on the joints should be trimmed up with glasspaper 

2l6 



Building a Model Locomotive 

and the whole locomotive and tender coated with size. 
This is a necessary preliminary to the coating of paper 
with oil paint, and any loose parts such as bogies should 
be removed. 

The coupling-rods may be made of wood or metal 
and " screwed " into the wheels ; the screws are secured 
by seccotine or a shellac cement. The coupling-rods on 
each side of the locomotive are arranged at 90 deg. to 
each other, not opposite. 



M>/e -for^'n 




Qn^le biociYs \.J^'^ ^ fran-t 
Fig. 15. — Bogie Frames of Tender 

The hand-rails (Fig. 16) should be made of stiff wire, 
the rail along the boiler being fitted into standards made 
of split pins. The boiler bands should be strips of card 
carefully cut out with a sharp knife and glued on to the 
boiler, the joints being on the underside. Buffers may 
be made of wood, small drawing pins, polished bright, 
forming the heads. The hooks are best made of two or 
three thicknesses of strong card glued together. 

One or two elementary hints may be given for the 
benefit of readers who have not attempted such an am- 
bitious model before. The parts should be drawn out 
on the card before cutting them up ; care being exercised 
to see that the setting out is correct. This will ensure an 

217 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

accurate result and good fitting of the parts. The glue 
should not be too thin or too lavishly used. One pro- 
fessional expert in cardboard modelling known to the 
writer strongly advocated gum arable as an adhesive, 
saying that with this substance and by building up layer 
on layer, models would last at least a hundred years. 
(J pi it bin The gum arabic needs to be dissolved 

in water. Except where wood parts 




are employed good gum may be used 

^Handrail ^'^ ^^ P^^^^ ^^ g^^^- 

Fig. 16.— Details of Some of the letter references in the 

Handrail illustrations given in this chapter have 

already been explained. The following is a complete 
list :— 

Locomotive : a b, axleboxes ; b b, boiler barrel ; 
K, keep for axleboxes ; w, wrapper for smokebox ; s b, 
smokebox door ; f r, smokebox front plate ; w T c, 
water-tube cover ; c p R, coupling-rods ; c t, cab top ; 
w I, whistle ; c H, chimney ; d, dome ; g i, guard irons ; 
c E, corner frame edging ; e d, edging of frames ; c c, 
cylinder cover piece ; b, buffers ; b p, buffer planks ; 
c p, cross pieces ; b s, back step (and front step of tender) ; 
M p, motion plate ; f s, firebox sides ; f e, firebox end. 

Tender : b s f, bogie stop frames ; c r, coal rails ; 
T p, tank top ; h r, hand rails ; t t, tender tanks ; t b, 
tool boxes ; r t, tank filler ; b p, buffer planks. 



218 



TURNING WOOD IN THE LATHE 

By A. MiLLWARD 

The Lathe. — A boy who owns (or can get the use of) 
a lathe, however simple its form, will find it invaluable 
not only for making any number of useful things, but also 
as a great help in many other hobbies. Any object 
having a circular form can be readily and truly shaped in 
a lathe, which comprises essentially a pair of "centres" 
between which the work is revolved against the action of 
a cutting tool. In order to make the instructions which 
follow more easily understood it is proposed to give first 
a brief description of the component parts of a lathe with 
their proper names. 

In Fig. 1 is shown a front view of a simple form of 
lathe, in which a is a foundation plate or bed carried on 
a bench or legs a\ On the bed a is fixed the headstock h, 
which carries a revolving spindle or mandrel c, which is 
rotated by pulleys d fixed thereon. The pulleys d are 
driven by a belt e passing over one of the pulleys d and 
over another pulley of a series of pulleys/, which are driven 
or rotated by a treadle g through the medium of a crank 
pin h on the pulley and a connecting rod or pitman ^. 
The variation in the sizes of the pulleys d and/ is to pro- 
vide a simple form of gear for varying the speed of the 
mandrel. It will be apparent that if the belt c is placed 
on the first or outer pulleys (that is, on the smallest one 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

of the pulleys d and on the largest one of the pulleys /), 
then the mandrel c will be rotated at a greater speed 
than would be the case were the belt placed as shown in 
the illustration, but the speed of treadling would remain 
constant. 

On the opposite end of the bed a, is arranged the loose 
headstock, tailstock, or back poppet k, which is free to 




Fig. 1. — Diagram of Simple Lathe with Parts Lettered for Reference 



move on the bed a until clamped in position. The back 
poppet k carries a spindle I which, on turning the wheel l^, 
is moved through it by a screw. A tool rest m is clamped 
to the bed in any desired position. The mandrel c and 
the spindle I are each provided with centres n, which 
must be exactly opposite one another in order to produce 
perfectly round work. Fig. 1 must be looked upon not 



220 



Turning Wood in the Lathe 



as being the drawing of any particular form of lathe, 
but merely typical of a simple form, as almost any lathe, 
however complicated, will comprise the above described 
essential parts. 



c 




Figs. 2 and 3. — Wood-turning Gouge 



Tools. — With regard to the tools required for wood 
turning it will be sufficient to start with a wood-turning 
gouge {see Figs. 2 and 3, which are plan and side views 



ZZ 



3 



•^si 



cEir: 



J 



Fig8. 4 and 5. — Wood-turning Chisel 

respectively) and a chisel {see Figs. 4 and 5, which are 
also plan and side views). It will be seen that the chisel, 
unlike an ordinary wood chisel, is bevelled or sharpened 




Fig. 6. — Tool Handle to be Turned in Wood 

from both sides, and its edge is inclined instead of being 
square with its sides. 

Making: a Tool Handle. — ^As a first attempt at wood- 
turning it is proposed to make a tool handle, as shown by 

22J 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



Fig. 6. Get a piece of square wood (the most suitable 
will be beech, which is inexpensive and fairly hard and 
close-grained) an inch or two longer than the handle when 
finished is required to be, and of a thickness slightly 





Fig. 7. — Square Piece of Wood for Tool Handle 

greater than the largest diameter of the finished handle. 
Square the ends and mark diagonal lines a b from each 
corner, as shown on Fig. 7- At the point where the two 
lines cross each other — which will be the axial centre of 
the wood — make holes with a centre punch. Now chisel 
or plane away the corners c of the wood shown in dotted 
lines on Fig. 8, and make a saw cut d along one of the 



c 


^.f-^ 




\ 


\ 


ij 

1 


\ 1 / 




/ 



c 

Fig. 8. — Wood for Turning Tool Handle prepared for the Prong Chuck 

diagonal lines on the end to take a " prong " or " horn " 
chuck {see Figs. 9 and 10) which is inserted in the nose of 
the mandrel c {see Fig. 1) in place of the plain centre n. 
The prong or horn chuck, of which a side view is shown 

222 



Turning Wood in the Lathe 



on Fig. 9 and an end view on Fig. 10, is for the purpose 
of causing the wood to turn with the mandrel whilst 
being cut. 

Be careful to see that the centre prong of the chuck 
enters the centre hole of the saw cut. Fix the chuck in 
the wood by giving the end of the wood or the end of the 
chuck a smart blow with a hammer. Adjust the back 
poppet k {see Fig. 1), and then screw in the spindle I so 
that its centre n enters the hole at the other end of the 
wood, first putting a little grease, oil or black lead in the 
centre hole. 





Fig. 9. Fig. 10. 

Figs. 9 and 10. — Two Views of Prong Chuck 

It is advisable to screw up the spindle I fairly tightly 
at first; any binding resulting therefrom will disappear 
after a few revolutions. Now adjust the tool rest m 
(Fig. 1) until its top edge is below the centre of the work, 
and so that the wood when revolving is just clear of the 
front edge of the rest. Take the gouge and work the 
treadle to cause the top of the work to turn towards you 
at a faii'ly high speed. Rest the rounded side of the 
gouge on the top side of the rest m with the hands well 
down so that the cutting edge will be higher than the 
hands. It is essential to hold the gouge very firmly, the 
right hand grasping the handle with thumb uppermost 
and the left hand grasping the tool with the knuckles 
uppermost a few inches from the rest m. Now press the 

223 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



tool forwards towards the work until it begins to cut, and 
then move it along until a few inches are reduced to the 
same diameter. Then press the tool farther, and move 
it back again until the beginning of the cut is reached, 
and so on until the desired diameter is obtained, adjusting 
the height of the tool rest as required. 

It is always advisable to turn the larger diameters 
first before turning the smaller ones. In the present case 
the main portions of the handle will first be turned, then 
the ends reduced ; the one end a {see Fig. 11) nearest the 
fixed centre should be turned down to fit into a short 




Fig. 11. — Turning the Tool Handle 

length of brass tube to form a ferrule so as to prevent the 
handle splitting when the tool is driven into it. 

A pair of outside callipers (Fig. 12) will be required to 
gauge the diameter of the work, and since it will be neces- 
sary hereafter to have means for measuring internal 
diameters such as holes, hollows or insides of boxes, etc., 
it will be as well to get a pair of inside callipers also (see 
Fig. 13). 

To use callipers, first set them to the desired diameter 
by placing the end of one of the legs against the end of a 
rule, and extending them until the end of the other leg 
coincides with the required measurement on the rule. 
Always bring the work to rest in the lathe before attempting 
to calliper or gauge it. 

If the cut is not satisfactory or the wood is torn rather 

2?i\ 



Turning Wood in the Lathe 



than cut the fault will be found to be : (1) Speed not 
high enough. (2) Tool not sharp enough. (3) Wrong 
position of the cutting edge. The third fault is the 
most common. The remedies for the first two faults are 
obvious, while the third can usually be put right by 
dropping the hands a little so as to raise the cutting 
edge of the tool ; but see that the tool rest is at the 
correct height. 





Fig. 12. — Outside Calipers 



Fig. 13. — Inside Calipers 



After the whole surface has been turned or "roughed 
out " with the gouge to the desired size, it will be found 
that the surface consists of a series of ridges instead of 
being smooth. To obtain a smooth surface, the chisel 
must be used. This tool, like all cutting tools, must be 
kept absolutely sharp, and a good oilstone is therefore a 
very necessary item. 

To use a chisel properly is very much more difficult 
than the use of the gouge. It must be so held in relation 
p 225 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



to the work that only the middle part of the edge does the 
cutting. It must not be used, as is so often the case with 
amateurs, as a scraping tool. Fig. 14 shows the proper 
way of using the chisel, a being the cutting part of the 
edge, the highest point or edge a^ being above and out of 
contact with the work x, whilst the lower point a^ is 
below and also out of contact with the work. In such a 
position a smooth, even surface will be produced as the 
tool is moved along the rest m from right to left, but con- 
siderable practice 



will be required to 
prevent the edges 
a^ or a* digging 
into the work. 

An easier way 
of obtaining a 
smooth surface is 
to use an ordinary 

Fig. H.-Using Chkel In Wood Turning carpenter's chiscl 

sharpened to a truly square edge on one side only. The 
bevel of the chisel should be underneath and the top 
side of the chisel should be in line with the centre of 
the work. As a chisel so held scrapes rather than cuts, 
it will be necessary to sharpen it continually. 

When the surface has been gone over and reduced to 
the desired size with the chisel it should be perfectly 
smooth, but this is seldom obtained at a first attempt. 
To make it quite smooth, take a piece of fine glasspaper 
and press it lightly on the surface backwards and forwards 
whilst revolving the work at a high speed. To polish 
the work, press against it whilst it revolves in the lathe 

226 




Turning Wood in the Lathe 

a rag dipped in linseed oil or smeared with beeswax and 
turpentine. 

The end a^ (Fig. 11) of the handle must now be cut 
off. To cut off a piece of work in the lathe a parting 




Fig. 15.— Cutting-off Tool 

tool, illustrated by Fig. 15, is employed, and must be 
held at right angles to the axis of the work and advanced 
into the work in that position without moving it to the 
right or left. It is not advisable to cut right through 
with the parting tool owing to the liability of the work to 
break and perhaps be spoilt ; it is better to turn down 
as much as possible without breaking, remove the work 
from the lathe, and to cut off with a fine saw. 

In the present case it will not be necessary to use a 
parting tool, as the end to be cut off will already be turned 
down to a fine neck, which can be easily sawn through, 
and the saw marks removed by means of glasspaper. 

Having turned the 
handle satisfactorily it 
will be an easy matter 
to use the knowledge 
so gained in doing 

... , Fig. 16.— Another Tool Handle 

more ambitious work. 

Fig. 16 shows a slightly different form of handle, 
Fig. 17 a bail or spindle, Fig. 18 a chair or stool leg, and 
Fig. 19 a drawer knob or handle, all of which can be turned 
after some practice. 

Screw Chuck. — It is not always convenient or even 

227 




Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

possible to turn some work between centres ; take, for 
instance, a powder box (shown in section in Fig. 20) or 
an egg-cup (see Fig. 21) or other articles requiring to be 
hollowed out. In such cases the block of wood must be 
held on to the mandrel by some other means than the 
prong chuck already described. 

Fig. 22 shows a screw chuck which will be found very 
useful ; this, as shown, comprises a shank a fitting into 
the end of the mandrel (or in some cases it may be pro- 
vided with a socket to screw on to the mandrel nose), a 
plate b and a tapered wood screw c projecting centrally 



Fig. 17.— Bail or Spindle d 



^nOOdir:^^ 




Fig. 19. — Drawer 
Fig. 18. — Leg of Chair or Stool Knob or Handle 

from the face of the plate b. In use, a centre hole is first 
made in the wood, and then the wood is screwed on to the 
screw c until its back surface (which should be first planed 
true) butts against the plate b. The taper screw chuck 
can be employed only when the diameter of the work is 
fairly small and is not of great length ; if it is required to 
turn a disc or a wheel or a circular picture frame {see 
Figs. 23 and 24, which are a front view and side section 
respectively) it is better to screw the wood either directly 
on to the face plate o {see Fig. 1) (a slotted disc fixing on 
to the mandrel ; it is part of the furniture provided with 
most lathes, even of the simplest form) with wood screws 
passing through the slots from the back of the plate into 

228 



Turning Wood in the Lathe 



the wood held flat against the face or by screwing the 
wood from the front face on to a piece of wood pre- 
viously secured on the front surface of the face plate. 





Fig. 20.— Section through 
Powder Box 



Fig. 21.— Wooden 
Egg-cup 



When it is necessary to turn one part to fit within 
another, such as the lid to fit on the box (see Fig. 20), 
it is advisable to turn the hollow part of the joint first 
and then turn the outer part to fit within the hollow part, 
because it is easier to turn an outside part to an exact 
size than it is to turn an inner surface to a precise 
dimension. 

Woods for Turning. — As a general rule, hard and 

close-grained woods, such as 
box, rosewood, holly, lime, 
ebony, teak, beech, ash, apple 
and pear, are better suited 
for turning than the more 
open - grained hard woods, 
such as oak, walnut, elm and 
mahogany, or the common 
soft woods, such as pine, 
yellow pine, spruce, poplar and sycamore. 

Turning Tapered Work. — Occasion may arise when 
it may be necessary to turn a tapered pin or spindle, 

229 




Fig. 22. — Screw Chuck 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the taper to be gradual and even from a larger end to a 
smaller one. This may, of course, be accomplished by 
carefully advancing the tool nearer the centre as it 
approaches the smaller end of the work, but such an 
operation requires much skill and practice to be per- 
formed successfully. A much easier way is to " set over " 
the tailstock, that is, to move it in such a way that the 
centre carried by it is not in line with the centre carried 
by the headstock. 




Figs. 23 and 24. — Elevation and Section of 
Wooden Wheel, Picture Frame, etc. 



Most lathes will allow of the tailstock being set over, 
in which case turning a gradually tapering article presents 
no more difficulty than turning an article with parallel 
sides. The amount of eccentricity given to the back 
centre (in other words, the distance which the back centre 
is put out of line with the front centre) governs the amount 
of taper produced. 



230 



HOW TO MOUNT PICTURES 

I WILL not trouble you with many particulars with 
regard to the mounting of pictures. Engravings and 
similar pictures of value are rarely mounted, but are 
inserted in the frame just as they are ; but presentation 
plates, cheap prints in general, and often water-colour 
drawings and the like, require to be mounted on stiff paper 
boards, which are obtainable in all the regular sizes, 
such as 24 in. by 19 in., 30 in. by 21 in. or 22 in., 33 in. 
by 26 in., and several larger sizes. The picture, etc., 
having been carefully trimmed up with sharp knife or 
scissors to lines previously drawn by means of T-square 
and pencil, is laid face downwards upon a piece of 
clean newspaper and brushed all over with flour paste, 
made by mixing a tablespoonful of flour with a cup of 
cold water, and boiling until the paste becomes more or 
less translucent ; or a starch paste, made in a similar 
way, may be used. After a few minutes' interval, brush 
on lightly a second coat of paste. What is wanted is not 
a thick coat of paste, as that would squeeze out and prove 
a nuisance, but a well-worked-in thin coat, the moisture 
in which will make every part of the paper amenable to 
pressure. 

See that your fingers are perfectly clean, lift up the 

231 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

pasted print, turn it over, and lower one edge of it into 
the position already marked with faint lines on the 
mount. Then let the rest of the print come into 
contact, cover the whole with a piece of perfectly 
clean paper, and rub with a clean handkerchief or 
duster from the centre so as to expel all air and make 
the print lie perfectly flat. If any paste oozes out 
at the edges of the print, wipe it off rapidly with a 
perfectly clean sponge or cloth and clean water. Cover 
the print with a fresh piece of paper (the old piece pro- 
bably has some paste on it which might spoil the 
picture), and place under a pile of books or in a 

press to dry. 

There is a trick of stretch- 
ing the print when laying it on 
a mount. I have fre- 
Sri::r« q^ently adopted it, 
PAtTL o«^ and find it to answer 

StCCOTINE- 

very well, but the 
Fig. 1.— Stretching Print on mount needs to be stout to 

Mount (also applicable to _ n i • 

Straining Drawing-paper on resist the pull of the print. 

°" ' With a brush or pad of clean 

cloth, rub some water over the back of the print, but leave 
perfectly dry a margin about 1 in. wide at all four edges 
{see Fig. 1). Allow two or three minutes for the moisture 
to expand the paper. Apply some really strong paste 
(seccotine or a similar cement is better) to the dry margin, 
and very carefully lay the print on its mount. Gently 
smooth out any wrinkles on the margin of the print, but 
do not touch the centre part, however hopeless at this 
stage the job may look. Put it away for a few hours to 

232 



r 1 

I 



I WLT THIS CENTltE.- 
I PA.R.T WITH CLtAN ' 
I V/A>TiR. I 

I I 

1 I 



How to Mount Pictures 

dry, at the end of which time it will be found that the paper 
has considerably contracted, and the print is now as taut 
as a drumhead,. As a matter of fact, the parchment heads 




Fig. 2.— Mount-cutter's Knife 

of certain instruments are stretched taut by a similar 
method. 

Mount Cutting. — Cut mounts of many different 
materials, sizes and shapes can be had from picture- 
framing shops. A touch of seccotine is the best means 
of securing prints to the backs of such mounts. Should 
you be sufficiently ambitious to attempt to cut out a sunk 
mount for yourself, you will need a very thinly ground 
penknife, and had better spend ten minutes in making 
it extremely keen on a knife-polishing board, wiping it 
on a duster when 




finished. The proper ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 

tool is the mount- 
cutter's knife shown 
in Fig. 2 ; the steel 
blade has a very 
keen edge, and 
slides in and out of 
a wooden handle, 
at one end of 
which is a brass ferrule which takes the clamping 
screw. For straight mounts, the knife is guided 
along in contact with a straightedge ; for curved mounts 

233 





1 

jl 

[ 


^ 





Fig. 3. — Diagrams showing how Bevel of Sunk 
Mount affects the Apparent Thickness 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

everything depends upon the worker's skill, and I do not 
advise you to try, as the result is not worth the expendi- 
ture of time and material in practising. According to 
the angle at which the knife is held the sinking is given 
an effect of thinness or thickness [see Fig. 3). 

Setting Out an Ellipse. — Oval mounts need to be 
set out with pencil before attempting to cut them ; in 

my opinion 
they are best 
avoided, but 
as I know 
many people 
like them, 
and as ellip- 
ses are often 
wanted in 
mechanical 
work, I will 
show the 
most prac- 
ticable method of setting them out ("oval" means 
really egg-shaped, whereas what are known as " oval " 
mounts are truly elliptical). Place the mount on a 
drawing board and draw a horizontal pencil line 
about midway between the top and bottom edges. 
Mark off on this two points a and b (Fig. 4) to 
represent the length of the oval (the "major axis" 
in geometry). Mark a centre point between a and 
B as at c, and with the T-square or set-square drop 
a line at right angles to the point d. Now c d will be 
exactly half the depth of the opening required (by the 

234 




Fig. 4. — Drawing an Ellipse with Piiss, Thread 
and Pencil 



How to Mount Pictures 



way, I advise you to cut the opening first on common 
white paper, and place it over the photograph or picture 
to see whether you have struck the right proportion). 
With compasses measure from c to b, and, without alter- 
ing them, with d as centre, make two marks on the major 
axis as shown, and drive in a pin or needle at each of the 
intersecting points. Pass over the pins a loop of thread, 
of such a length that when it is 
stretched downwards by means 
of a pencil the latter just touches 
D. There will now be a triangle 
of thread, and by using the pencil 
to keep the loop taut and at 
the same time moving it about 
round the pins it will be found 
to trace an ellipse, as shown. 
Probably many of you are quite 
familiar with the method, but 
I have often found that boys 
when attempting it do not know 
how to go to work when given 
definite lengths for the major 
and minor axes. On a large scale, the method 
can be used to set out garden beds, using posts 
instead of needles, string or rope instead of thread, 
and a dibber or poker instead of the pencil. The 
illustration (Fig. 4) shows a thread not looped but 
secured at its ends to the pins. Some experienced 
draughtsmen prefer this method. 

White and Gold Lines on Mounts. — Good effects are 
sometimes obtained by mounting prints and water-colours 

235 




Fig. 5. — Using a Draughts- 
man's Ruling Pen 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

on brown mounts, a simple line of white being run 
round on the mount half an inch or more from the picture. 
Such lines can be drawn with diluted Chinese white used 
in a draughtsman's ruling pen (Fig. 5), but the job needs 
to be done quickly, as the white soon clogs the pen and 
frequent cleaning out will be necessary. An ordinary 
writing-pen nib may also be used. For gold lines on 
picture mounts, rule the lines with gum water, allow to 
set, but not to dry, breathe on them, and at once dust 
over them some gold bronze powder ; a better and more 
permanent effect is obtained by dabbing gold leaf on the 
gum lines, in which case the gum needs to be strong and 
to have a little sugar dissolved in it. Edges of mounts 
can be gilt in the same way, or strips of gold paper may 
be gummed on. 



236 



SOME EASY THINGS TO MAKE IN WOOD 

A Lamp Bracket. — A simple but solid lamp-bracket is 
shown on the next page. It is made wholly of |-in. 
material, which, naturally, will be a trifle thinner than 
this when finished. There are four pieces. The long 
wall piece is 7 in. long and 2| in. wide ; it will require to 
be cut a little larger than the dimensions here given to 
allow of planing up. The top shelf is 3| in. square, and 
its shape is shown in detail in the plan (Fig. 3), while 
Figs. 1 and 2 are two elevations in which the shelf is 
shown simply in edge view. The lower shelf should be 
made originally as a part of the back piece so that it will 
be exactly the same width. It is 2 in. from back edge to 
front edge, but | in. of it is housed into the back 
piece, and its outer corners are rounded off {see Fig. 4). 
The bracket piece under the top shelf will be cut from 
a piece measuring 1| in. by 2| in., and the method of 
striking the curve to which it requires to be cut is given 
in Fig. 2, where d is the centre for the compasses. 

First plane up all the stuff and get it true and square. 
Dealing with the back piece first, Fig. 1 shows how the 
foot of it is struck to a curve, the centre for the compass 
being 1| in. up and 1\ in. from either side. The curve 
can be worked with a saw if the wood is left originally a 
trifle long, or perhaps it will be easier to execute it with 

237 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



a sharp chisel, but the square shoulders | m. from the 
bottom could be cut in with a fine saw. A groove should 
be cut for the bottom shelf exactly as shown, its depth 
being half the thickness of the material. Nothing need 
be said about the bottom shelf c — its shape is quite clear 





Figs. 1 and 2. — Front and Side Elevations of Lamp Bracket 



I I 



a^"-{--^ 



I 



17 LJ.i 



^U^ 




Fig. 3.— Plan of Top Shelf 



Fig. 4. — Section through 

Back piece, showing Plan 

of Under Shelf 



^38 



Some Easy Things to Make in Wood 

from what has been said already. The top piece is per- 
fectly square except for the hollowing out of the two front 
corners executed with saw or gouge. It is simply laid 
on the top of the back piece squarely, and nailed or screwed 
on. The bracket piece is cut to the curve shown, and 
should be screwed on, there being, say, one screw through 
the top and two inserted from the back. 

Folding Book Rack. — The book rack shown in Fig. 5 
is a base with plain or bevelled edges and two hinged ends. 
If desired these ends can be permanently fixed upright 
by means of screws inserted from underneath. Fig. 5 is 



— 1' <s"- 



-HIBCL 



KiKGL 



J* i- J- 



T CKl 



5 — - 



^~ 



/- 



^ 



■7''- 



Figs. 5 and 6. — Two Elevations of Folding Book Rack 3i 



a front elevation, and Fig. 6 an end elevation, while Fig. 7 
is an enlarged end elevation giving the construction lines 
by means of which the end pieces are correctly set out. 
The base is 1 ft. 9 in. by 1\ in. (finished sides). The bevel, 
or straight chamfer, is worked on it with a plane. Each 
end piece is 6 in. high by 5 in. wide (finished), and very 
little need be said about its shape, because Fig. 7 gives 
full particulars. 

The perforated star adds considerably to the effect. 
It is set out as shown in Fig. 6, a circle being drawn and 
the radius stepped round with the compasses to give six 
points, the alternate points being then connected as 

239 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



shown. A hole could be bored in the middle of the star, 
and the points then cut out with saw or chisel. 

The end pieces are each connected to the base piece 
by one brass hinge, although two hinges each would be 
an improvement. The hinges are carefully laid in position 
marked round with a sharp knife, and recesses carefully 
chiselled out to receive them. Drive in the screws straight 
so that their heads come perfectly flush. 

Stool and Doli's Carriage. — Fig. 8 shows just the 

sort of article in wood the 
boy mechanic can make 
and at the same time give 
much pleasure to a young 
brother or sister. It is a 
stool 11 in. high, having a 
top 16 in. long by 9 in. wide, 
the end pieces being cut 
from pieces approximately 
11 in. long and 8 in. wide 
(see Figs. 9 to 11). To give 
the whole thing strength the 
sides are preferably dovetailed in, and they will require to 
be cut to the shape and dimensions given by a full-size 
drawing ; they can be got out of pieces each about 1 ft. 
3 in. long and 5 in. wide. I shall not anticipate the 
information on dovetailing given in a later chapter, 
but may remark that the dimensions given in Fig. 12 
will assist you in making a good job of it. If you do not 
feel up to the dovetailing, simply notch out the end 
pieces with a saw to receive the sides, and connect all 
together with screws or nails. 

240 




Fig. 7.— End of Book Rack 




Simple Bookrack with Hinged Ends 

(For Working Draunngs, see page 239) 




Pair of Dwarf Steps 

(For Working Drawings, see page 243) 



Some Easy Things to Make in Wood 



A Pair of Dwarf Steps. — A pair of dwarf steps is 
very useful in a study or hall or workshop where articles 
just out of ordinary reach are continually being wanted. 
The steps shown on p. 243 stand about 18 in. high, and the 
two elevations given in Figs. 13 and 14 give most, if not 
all, of the essential dimen- 
sions. The steps will be made 
wholly of 1-in. pine, which, 
when planed up, will be | in. 
thick. The front legs are 4| in. 
wide, and have a total length 
of about 22 in. Therefore, at 
least 3 ft. 8 in. of this width 
of stuff will be required. The 
back legs are about 1 ft. 6 in. 

long, tapering from 3^ in. at the pig. 8.-StooI and Doll's Carriage 




Tf 




Figs. 9 and 10. — Two Elevations of Stool 





Fig. 11.— Plan of Stool 
9 



Fig. 12.— Side of Stool 
Dovetailed to Leg 



241 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

top to 2 1 in. at the bottom, as shown in the side elevation, 
and both of them can be cut from a piece 18 in. long and 
6 in. wide. The one step and the top may be about 6f in. 
or 7 in. wide, although the step can be 1 in. narrower if 
desired. The top will be about 1 ft. 4 in. long, whilst 
the step will need to be accurately fitted in place, and 
will be about 1| in. shorter than the top piece. 

To get the various bevels correctly marked out, the 
best plan would be to draw the side and front elevations 
on a floor or on a table top with a stout pencil or crayon ; 
or perhaps a piece of packing paper large enough for the 
purpose can be found. From the full-size drawing all 
the bevels can be transferred by means of the tool 
known as the sliding bevel, or even by means of a 2-ft. 
folding rule as long as the joint is not too easy. First 
draw a rectangle, letting the top and bottom lines fall on 
the ground line and upper surface of the top step in 
Fig. 13; then by measurement along both the horizontal 
lines, the points where the sloping sides start and finish 
can be easily ascertained and the correct angles deter- 
mined. The wood can be actually applied to the full- 
size drawing, and risk of error in transferring measure- 
ments thereby reduced considerably. The side pieces 
must be cut to shape and " housed," that is, grooved to 
receive the ends of the steps. 

There is more than one point in the construction in 
which you can please yourself. Where the front legs 
overlap the back ones just under the top, the two may be 
halved together, or halving may be dispensed with, and 
the two simply nailed or screwed together. The halving 
should be done after the back legs have been connected 

242 



Some Easy Things to Make in Wood 

together. The steps are given rigidity by two rails which 
connect the back legs together— a top rail 14 in. by 4 in. 
and a lower rail 14 in. long by 1| in. by 1 in. Both these 
back rails arc notched in, as clearly shown in Fig. 13, 
and nailed or screwed on. The top notch may, if you 
like, be wholly removed with the saw, whereas the bottom 
one requires two saw cuts and careful paring with a 
chisel. 



\^ e%-n 




Figs. 13 and 14.— Two Elevations of Dwarf Steps 

There is no need to go into every detail of the construc- 
tion. It is a simple article, which there will be no diffi- 
culty in making, and which can be modified to suit your 
own particular requirements. Only two parts are rounded 
or chamfered on the edges, namely, the top and the step. 
There is a hand hole in the top piece, the position of which 
requires to be set out before cutting. The simplest way 
of making the hole is to bore a centrebit hole at each 
end and connect the two holes with a fine saw, or to 
bore a row of centrebit holes, and complete the slot by 
paring with a chisel. It makes a good job to house or 

243 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

groove the underside of the top to receive the ends of 
the sides. 

Bathroom Shelf. — Figs. 15 and 16 are almost self- 
explanatory. The article has two ends (for economy in 
cutting out, reverse the pattern of one as at b) with the 
shelf tenoned into them {see Fig. 17). In the fitment 





Fig, 18. — Bathroom Fitment 
with Glass Shelf 



1 -; ' 

i_Lr-^ i J. 

Figs. 15 and 16. — Two Elevations of Bathroom Shelf 



~L 






Fig. 17.— 

Tenoned End 

of Shelf 



shown by Fig. 18, the two ends are nailed or screwed to 
the back piece, and the actual shelf is a plate of glass 
with its front edges rounded off, supported in grooves in 
the two ends or on little ledges or fillets nailed or screwed 
to them. 



244 



ETCHING A NAME ON METAL 

It is a very simple matter to etch your name on a knife- 
blade, and I used to find the job great fun. The principle 
is very simple. The blade is to be treated with a chemical 
that will act upon the steel, and those parts of the metal 
that are to remain as they are must be coated with some- 
thing that will resist the action of the chemical. Now 
there are many chemicals that act upon steel, copper and 
brass, and among them are the following : (1) equal 
parts of pyroligneous acid, nitric acid, and water. (2) 
diluted nitrous acid. (3) 2 oz. of copper sulphate, | oz. 
of alum, J oz. of salt, | pint of vinegar, and 40 drops of 
nitric acid. These are among the simplest mixtures used 
for the purpose, and there are many more complicated 
ones ; but the substance I used when I was a boy was 
something very much more simple. It was ordinary blue- 
stone (sulphate of copper), a big lump of which can be 
bought from a chemist or an oilman for a trifle. It h 
made leady for use by crushing a little bit of it to powder, 
adding a tiny pinch of salt and moistening with water; 
or you can dissolve a larger quantity of the bluestone 
crushed fine with a little salt in a bottle with hot 
water. If you continue to add crushed bluestone 
until the water will not dissolve any more you will 
form a saturated solution, and this will be excellent 

245 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

stuff for etching knives, steel tools or anything else 
made of iron or steel. 

Etching acids and solutions can be applied with a tiny 
bit of sponge or tissue paper tied to the end of a thin piece 
of stick, or, if it happens to be convenient, the article to 
be etched may, after careful preparation, be dipped into 
the solution. Of course, the longer the time for which 
it is dipped the deeper will the etching be. It is not usual 
to have the etching acids very strong unless particularly 
quick results are required. It is generally better to dilute 
them with water so that the effect of the corrosion may 
be carefully watched and stayed just at the right moment. 
Plunging into water and stirring round vigorously im- 
mediately stops the action. 

If the whole of a knife-blade or tool unprepared in any 
way were immersed, the whole of its surface would be 
etched or corroded, and one result would be that the keen 
edge would disappear. Before dipping the blade every 
part that is not to be touched by the acid must be covered 
with something (known as the resist) which is not affected 
by the acid. In roughly etching a name on a knife-blade 
with powdered bluestone and salt, all that most boys do is 
to rub a thick film of soap over the blade, scratch the name 
in the soap right through to the steel beneath, fill up the 
grooves so made with the powder slightly moistened, 
and leave the whole for a few minutes. This is a rough 
and ready method, and not one which is likely to lead to 
a particularly neat result. 

Say, for example, there is a steel, copper or brass plate 
to bear your name which it is proposed to screw down on 
the lid of a tool-box or school locker {see Figs. 1 and 2), 

246 



Etching a Name on Metal 

you will want the effect to be as artistic and the workman 
ship as neat as possible. The soap method would be a 
trifle too rough, and, instead you had better coat the whole 



liNi&.MlJSCiRAyt 



Fig. 1. — Etched Name-plate 

of the plate (back and front and edges) with japan black, 
a small quantity of which you can obtain very cheaply at 
an oilshop. This should have several hours in which to 
dry hard. The name will be written by means of an 
etching needle, a piece of knitting needle held in a suitable 
handle, and finely but roundly pointed, or an old bradawl 
or anything similar can be sharpened up on a stone flag 
to answer the purpose. A sharp point is not necessary, 
as the object is not to scratch the metal, but simply to 
remove the resist and lay the metal bare. Having wiitten 




Fig. 2. — Etched Name-plate 

the name, brush over the letters to remove any loose 
particles of the resist that might be clinging to the plate, 
and the latter might then simply be placed in a saucer 

247 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

and the etching solution poured on until the plate is 
covered. It is impossible to say how long the plates 
should be left in the acid, but if you make the solution 



n i irrm» ii M | ,., , ,,,j ii um i i|, , ,,, , ,,, H ^ i Bi i|, ,, . ^ { i i iun.n. , ,. , .jMMa ii u„„.^ ^ ^ ^ }uu ait^,;;;;4muii 



MEC EDWARDS 



ti..mwnnJ" l "" '^, Nnn„ l "" i"'M^,T,#"^'HnrW"" " ' "L , ,MnJ " '^ . | imff l l | „„„„| l imilH ^ 



Fig. 3. — Etched Name-plate with " Stopped-out " Border 

fairly weak, you can leave it in for ten minutes and still 
be on the safe side. If you don't wish to immerse the 
whole plate, you can dab on the acid with the little device 
already mentioned, or you can build a wall of modelling 
wax or candle wax around the edge of the plate and pour 
m the acid into the shallow recess so formed. Obviously, 
there will be no need to coat the edges and back of the 
plate unless the whole-immersion method is preferred. 



'^ — W 



mm^ 



!Ai]TrTT7iini 



imimTnmmrTTn iiiiiMiiiiiuiiimitnnmTniii/iiiiiiiwiiiiiiiiiiimmnm 



y£. y^Q£SON 



liriUHIItiUlllllllimillllllllllllllUIKKIIIIIKIIIIMIIIIIKItaUllllUUi: 



Fig. 4. — Etched Name-plate with " Stopped-out" Ornament 



It is an easy matter to sponge off the acid and renew 
the treatment if the biting in is not sufficiently deep. 

248 



Etching a Name on Metal 

Rinse with water when^the right depth of etching is 
reached. 

Finally, you can wash off the japan black with some 
turpentine or paraffin oil, and the etched work be revealed 
in its finished state. 

You can try all kinds of fanciful effects by etching 
some parts of the design more deeply than others ; for 
example, you could have a border line very slightly etched 
with your name more deeply etched inside the line. To 
get this effect, you would proceed in the ordinary way, 
and after a slight action had taken place, you could wipe 
out the acid from the border line, and coat the line with 
wax or japan black, allowing it then an hour or tvro in 
which to dry and afterwards renewing the etching action 
on the name. This method is known as " stopping-out " 
(Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate examples), and is very generally 
practised in commercial etching. 



249 



VARNISHING AND POLISHING 

Varnishing. — I do not propose to say much about 
varnish. You will not be making your own varnishes, 
but will use what you buy ready made ; indeed, oil 
varnishes cannot be made at home, as the linseed oil needs 
to be made hot before the varnish gums are introduced, 
and that is much too risky a game to be tried at home ; 
besides, the making of oil varnish is an art beyond 
the amateur. All sorts of names are given to oil 
varnishes, but they mean very little. There is only 
one course if you want good varnish; go to a reliable 
dealer in decorators' supplies and pay a fair price. 
Tell him what you want the varnish for, and leave the 
choice to him. 

In applying oil varnish, avoid dust. Do not work the 
stuff too much with the brush, and do not attempt the 
job in a room that is cither cold or damp. If you think 
that the varnish is too thick, try standing it in a slightly 
warm place to see whether it gets a trifle more workable, 
but do not add any turpentine or oil to it or you will 
probably spoil it. If you think that two coats will make 
a better job than one, allow the first to get hard, and 
before applying the next, rub over with worn glasspaper 
or with a piece of wet felt or cloth on which has been 

250 



Varnishing and Polishing 

sprinkled some pumice powder. As in the case of the 
enamel paint previously mentioned, apply neither too 
much nor too little. 

Oil varnish can withstand a lot of wear and weather ; 
on the other hand, spirit varnish, which is generally a 
simple solution of shellac, etc., in methylated spirit, and 
can either be bought ready made or prepared at home, can 
seldom resist either, and is, therefore, used chiefly on small 
articles where a bright finish is desired, but which will 
not be liable to rough usage or come much in contact with 
water. It needs to be applied quickly, and it dries very 
often almost as soon as it is on. The coat of shellac or 
other gum or resin which it leaves on the work is often 
rather brittle, but for all that spirit varnish answers 
excellently for small and fancy articles of a great many 
kinds. Following are two or three recipes which you may 
find useful. If you try them, see that the gum, etc., is 
quite dry, is crushed up fairly fine, and that the bottle 
containing the ingredients is kept in a nice warm place 
such as near a chimney breast, near a hot- water, pipe or in 
a heated linen-cupboard. Give the bottle a shake up 
every day, and finally leave it for as long as possible for 
any impurities to sink to the bottom. 

A favourite spirit varnish is "brown hard varnish." 
The name means anything or nothing, and I expect there 
are scores of different recipes for it. Here is one of the 
best : Dissolve 4 oz. of orange shellac, 1 oz. of resin, and 
^ oz. of gum benzoin in 1 pint of methylated spirit. An 
excellent reddish-coloured varnish is made by adding a 
touch of bismarck brown to the above, or 1 oz. of dragon's 
blood. You can get a yellow tinge by adding a little piece 

251 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

of gamboge, a lump of which can be got from the chemist 
very cheaply. 

There is also a '\ white hard varnish," and for this you 
can dissolve 4 oz. of gum sandarach and 2 oz. of gum- 
thus or Venice turpentine in 1 pint of methylated spirit. 

The following is a bright varnish which is not so brittle 
as the usual spirit varnish : — Dissolve 1 oz. of resin, 2 oz. 
of gum sandarach, 6 oz. of shellac, and 1 oz. of Venice 
turpentine in from 1 to 1| pints of methylated spirit. 

An everyday spirit varnish is simply a solution of a 
few ounces of shellac in 1 pint of methylated spirit. 

Polishing. — I wonder how many of my readers will 
be ambitious enough to attempt what is known as french 
polishing. I shall merely outline the process here. It 
gives a much more beautiful finish than varnishing, and 
consists of applying a coat of shellac to the work and then 
bringing this to a lustrous polish by means of friction. 
You must first prepare the surface with glasspaper and 
then fill up the grain by rubbing over it a rag dipped into 
a creamy paste consisting of whiting and turpentine. 
Rub away the surplus " filler," and see if there are any 
nail holes or defects that require to be made good. If 
there are, you can fill them with melted shellac, although 
the proper material to use is a hard stopping known as 
beaumontage, and containing shellac, resin, beeswax, and 
colouring matter. This can be bought ready-made, and 
is run into the defects by means of a hot iron, cleaning off 
the surplus when cold with a scraper and glasspaper. 

The job is first to give the work a sound, even coating 
of shellac. This is done by going over it many times with 
french polish, which can be bought ready-made or pre- 

252 



Varnishing and Polishing 

pared at home by dissolving 6 oz. of shellac in 1 pint of 
methylated spirit. The polish is kept in a bottle, and 
when required for use is allowed to drip into a little pad 
of wadding, which should then be covered with a piece of 
clean dry rag, previously thoroughly well washed free 
from dirt and dressing. By having the rag of ample 
size and giving it a twist occasionally, the polish can be 
squeezed out of the rubber on to the work. The rubber 
meets with some resistance in use, and, to lessen it, you 
may apply just a spot of raw linseed oil to its face, but 
the less oil you use the better. Work the rubber in a 
series of overlapping circles or figure eights, and when 
you have got on as much shellac as you can, let the work 
rest for a day in a situation protected from dust, cold 
and damp. Give it another coat and yet another, ob- 
serving the precautions before mentioned, and when you 
are satisfied that you have obtained a good body of shellac, 
you can start the particular stage of the process in which 
trouble, if not already met, makes its entry ! 

Now what you have to do is to wash the film of shellac 
with spirit and polish it by the passage of the rubber, 
but you must avoid washing it all away. You will need 
a clean outer rag — or two or three rags one over the other 
— on the polish rubber, but do not add any more polish. 
Add, instead, a little methylated spirit, and, as it dries 
out, add a little more^ and continue in this way until, as 
the job nears its end, there will be very little polish left 
in the rubber, the spirit having taken its place. The 
rubbing continues until the polish is attained. I doubt 
whether a long chapter on the subject would succeed in 
teaching you the polisher's art. I shall make no attempt to 

253 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

do that, however ; I have simply outlined the process, and 
you can experiment to your heart's content if you so wish. 
French polishing is one of those jobs that ought to be easy 
from the description of how it is done, but— wait and see. 

There is one little trick (it is not used by the best 
polishers) by which you can avoid some of the risky 
later stage — the spiriting-out — and yet get a passable 
effect. Having progressed a little in the polishing of the 
shellac film, do not continue with the rubber, but brush 
on a coat, or even two, of a glaze or varnish made by 
dissolving 6 oz. of gum benzoin in 1 pint of methylated 
spirit. Of course the result is not so good as that given 
by the true french polish. 

Dull Polishes. — French polishing is often garish in 
its effect, but can be made to look very good by dulling 
it with friction from a pad of felt made wet with linseed 
oil and sprinkled with pumice powder or the finest emery. 

Probably the best dull polish is also the simplest, and 
is obtained by rubbing on, with a rag or a brush, some 
beeswax dissolved in turpentine. You simply rub it on, 
and then with a cloth or another brush do your best to 
rub it off again. Repeat the process as many times as 
you like, and with every repetition the quality of the 
polish will improve. After a time you need not apply 
more wax, but simply more friction. 

Rubbing with linseed oil, either raw or boiled, in much 
the same way as wax polishing is done, will, in course of 
time, produce a dull polish ; but the work is laborious, 
and will require many applications and plenty of elbow 
grease. It is the ideal polish for finishing the woodwork 
of tools, particularly plane stocks. 

254 



MAKING HUTCHES 

Most boy carpenters try their hand some time or other 
at making a rabbit hutch, which occasionally is nothing 
better than a lidless box placed on its side with the opening 
covered in partly by wire netting and partly by a wooden 
door, there being a partition to separate the " living- 



Fig. 1,— Rabbit Hutch 

room " from the " bedroom." In Fig. 1 is shown some- 
thing a trifle more ambitious, although, of course, it is 
little more than a box divided up as above explained. 
Fig. 1 is a view of the hutch complete ; Fig. 2, a front 
elevation ; Fig. 3, a cross section ; Fig. 4, a horizontal 
section showing the dividing up of the hutch into two 

255 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



apartments ; and Fig. 5 is another front elevation of the 
hutch with the outer door open or removed to show the 
inner door, to which reference will be made in due course. 

The remaining illus- 
tration (Fig. 6) shows 
exactly how the 
hutch is arranged 
internally. 

You can either 
build up the box 
from any material 
you happen to have 
at hand, say ^ in., 
I in., or f in. thick, 




-J H 

Fig. 2. — Front Elevation of Hutch 



or you can adapt a 
box or packing case 

to your needs. Assuming the latter, remove the lid, and very 

carefully prise off one of the sides by means of an old chisel 

or screwdriver. The lid and side will help to make the roof 

and to increase the height, 

if necessary, by adding tri- 
angular side pieces c (Fig. 6) 

and back piece b. To hold 

these in place, two strips d at 

each of the internal corners 

will be necessary, nailing these 

with fine wire nails to the 

lower part of the box, as will 

be readily understood from"^-^ 

the illustration. You can 

please yourself whether you 

256 




Fig. 3. — Cross Section through 
Hutch. 



Making Hutches 



r b 



DA^f- COMPAniiajT 






-• ' \fflms 



use another strip near the front or whether you secure 
c to the piece underneath by driving a nail down through 
c from the top edge. 

The partition f should be in one piece if possible, 
but if obliged to 



make it in two, you 
can connect them 
together with a 
couple of strips at 
right angles to the 
joint. The partition 
will be secured with 
two or three nails 
driven through from 
the back of a and b 
and with a couple of 
nails driven through 
from underneath. 
Before securing the 
partition, however, 
it is necessary to 
cut out a square of 
4 in. or more, as 
indicated at g, to 
give access from one 
apartment to the 
other. 




Fig. 4. — Horizontal Section through Hutch 




Fig. 5. — Front Elevation of Hutch, with 
Outer Door Removed 



You can next proceed with the lid, and as you are un- 
likely to be able to find a board sufficiently wide, you will 
need to build it up of two or three widths and nail them 
down to a couple of fillets which will come on the under- 

K 257 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



side of the roof, and be, therefore, hidden. In the section 
(Fig. 3) the roof is shown as being flush at back and front, 
but a better idea is to make it as shown in the general 
view (Fig. 1), that is, with a projection at front and back 
and also at sides. Always remember that damp is the 
great enemy of the domestic pet. Poultry, rabbits, dogs 
and even bees soon lose their health if obliged to exist in 
damp surroundings, and it is therefore an advantage to 

carry out a roof as 
shown for the pur- 
pose of throwing 
off rain. You can 
fit the roof, but do 
not fix it yet awhile, 
and remember to 
take care in decid- 
ing the height and 
arrangements of the 
outer door that it 
is not prevented 
from opening by 
the front over-hang of the roof. I mention this point 
because you are not likely to carry out the design in 
every detail as it is here shown ; you should study the 
requirements for yourselves, and make the instructions 
and illustrations here given merely a basis for your own 
particular adaptation. 

The front of the hutch consists of two parts : (1) a 
frame h with wire netting, or even straight vertical wires 
about 1 in. apart, and (2) a wooden door which covers 
just about half the entire width of the front. The frame 




Fig. 6. — Internal Arrangements of Hutch 



Making Hutches 

on which the wire netting is stretched is simply four pieces 
of |-in. or f-in. stuff, halved at the ends to make good 
joints. It is either nailed in or hinged on. 

Make the frame and attach the wires or netting before 
building the frame into the hutch ; it is secured with 
nails to the edge of the bottom board and to the edge 
of the side piece. A couple of nails through the roof when 
this is finally fixed will strengthen the job. 

You will note in the illustrations that there are two 
doors, an outer door l, and an inner door m. The outer 
door is hung from a post or strip and nailed to the front 
edge of the side piece. It should close flush with the 
frame h, and when it is open, there will, of course, be 
discernible a space between the right hand edge of h and 
the partition. You can quite see that in frequently 
opening the door to handle the rabbits or for purposes 
of cleaning the hutch, you would disturb any occupant of 
the sleeping apartment were it not for the inner door. 
A. doe with new-born rabbits must not be disturbed. 

The inner door opens vertically, and is simply a piece 
of board hinged to a horizontal strip which fits in the 
notch shown to the extreme right of Fig. 6, and is nailed 
to the front edges of side and partition. At the front 
edge of the partition underneath the strip last men- 
tioned is nailed a vertical strip flush with the front 
face of the door m. 

Little more need be said, but you will notice in Fig. 1 
a wedge through a staple, and in Fig. 2 a small padlock 
through a staple. You will please yourself which of these 
you adopt. The staple is driven into the strip on the 
front of partition f and a hole or slit is cut in the outer 

259 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



door to receive it, all being fastened up by means of a 
wedge or padlock as shown. 

All the woodwork being finished, you can paint the 
outside of the hutch if you so wish, and cover the roof 
with some tarred felt, which should project slightly from 
the boarding to which it is tacked down. See that venti- 
lation holes are bored high up in the back and side of 
the hutch. I have not shown any dimensions, because 
these will, of course, depend upon the box which you 

propose to adapt ; but 
you will scarcely wish to 
make a hutch from a box 
smaller than 3 ft. long, 
and about 2 ft. deep. 

Another Hutch. — The 
hutch which I show in 
Fig, 7 was specially de- 
signed for use as a ferret 
hutch, but is generally 
applicable to many different uses. Fig. 8 is the front 
elevation, and Fig. 9 is a cross section. The hutch can 
easily be converted from a box or packing case, or can 
be built up of f-in. or | in. boards. A few suitable 
dimensions are suggested in the illustrations, but they 
can be varied to any extent. Four legs will be required, 
and these may be of square or rectangular section and 
of any suitable thickness, 2 in. by 1| in. being suggested 
in the illustrations. 

You will note that these legs require to be 
notched out so as to give better and stronger support 
to the hutch. They are secured by a couple of screws 

260 




Fig. 7.— Ferret Hutch 



Making Hutches 

or nails inserted from the outside of the legs into the side 
of the hutch. 

A strong packing case, 3 ft. long and 18 in. deep, is 
suggested in the illustrations, but you will use just what 
you can get as near to these sizes as possible. The front 
of the box consists, first of all, of a rectangular frame made 
of ^-in. by 1-in. stuff, and halved at the four corners as 
shown in Fig. 10. At the centre will come an upright 




Fig. 8.— Elevation of Ferret Hutch 



Fig. 9. — Cross Section 
through Ferret Hutch 



piece, which will be halved into the frame at top and 
bottom, as shown in Fig. 11 ; it will carry two buttons, 
one for the wooden door to the right of the hutch, and the 
othei for the frame to the left. The framing is made of 
1-in. stuff, lapped at the ends, and covered with quite 
fine wire mesh. The door to the right will probably have 
to be built up of two widths, nailed to strips or ledges, 
which are indicated in dotted lines in Fig. 8. In the 
middle of the door is a small rectangular opening of any 
size, but not less than 5 or 6 in. across, and this also should 

261 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

be covered with very fine mesh, or with wire gauze. It 
will be obvious that the upright in the middle of the front 
will come on the front edge of a partition piece, which 
can be secured in position 
exactly as in the case of 
the rabbit hutch already 
described, and in this par- 
tition there will need to be 
made a small hole so that 
the animals can pass from 
one compartment to the 
other. By means of the 

big doors shown, it will be an easy matter to get at the 
hutch for cleaning purposes. 




Fig. 10.— Joint 
in Hutch 
Framework 



Fig. 11. — Joint 

of Front Upright 

to Framework 



262 



HOW TO SILVER GLASS FOR MIRROR 
MAKING 

I SUPPOSE most boys have wondered at times how a 
piece of glass is converted into a looking-glass, and many- 
have got hold of recipes and have tried their hands at 
the job. A state of " chemical cleanness " is essential 
at every step and in every one of the materials used, and 
this is not easy to attain. In the old days, a sheet of 
lead-foil was laid down on a special bench or table and 
treated with plenty of mercury, which amalgamated with 
the lead to produce a bright alloy, on to which the cleaned 
glass was floated. Glass easily floats in mercury. Next 
the bench had to be tilted to drain off the superfluous 
mercury, the degree of the tipping being increased day 
by day until, in the course of perhaps three or four weeks, 
the alloy or amalgam was dry. But the boy mechanic is 
not advised to play about with mercury for any length 
of time, as its vapour is poisonous. Nowadays, mirrors 
are made by precipitating silver from a chemical solution 
upon glass that has been made perfectly clean. 

Probably the safest and easiest method is the one 
here described, for which you must get from the chemist 
a bottle of distilled water, 180 grains of silver nitrate, 
150 grains of caustic potash " pure by alcohol," 75 

263 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

grains of glucose, and a small quantity each of nitric 
acid and of liquor ammoniae. No other method employs 
cheaper or fewer ingredients. Potash and glucose are 
too cheap to buy by the grain in the ordinary way, 

but you need to 
be correct in your 
proportions ; but if 
you have a delicate 
balance you can 
measure out the 
ingredients for 
yourself. 

First clean three 
tumblers and a 
small bottle with 
dilute nitric acid, 
which will leave 
them chemically 
clean, and then rinse 
them with distilled 
water. 

In tumbler No. 1 place the silver nitrate and 3 oz. of 
distilled water (1 pint of water is 20 oz.). See that the 
nitrate is all dissolved, and then transfer | oz. of the 
solution to the bottle (No. 4.) Dont let this solution 
touch the fingers or it will blacken the ski^i. The 
discoloration will wear off in the course of a few days. 

Silver nitrate is the " lunar caustic " of the chemist's 
shop, and is useful in certain cases of skin affection, the 
blackening being partly due to the formation of metallic 
silver ; in mirror making the glucose solution acts much 

264 




-The Solutions used in 
Silvering Glass 



How to Silver Glass for Mirrors 

in the same way as the cuticle of the skin in " reducing " 
the metallic silver. 

In tumbler No. 2 put the potash with 2| oz. of dis- 
tilled water. 

In tumbler No. 3 put the glucose and add 2| oz. of 
distilled water. 

The three tumblers and one bottle are shown in Fig. 1. 

To tumbler No. 1 add a few drops of the ammonia to 
cause a muddy brown colour to appear. Then add more 
ammonia, drop by drop, until once again the solution is 
clear and bright. For pouring out drops of the liquor 
ammonise loosen the stopper (never use a cork, as it 
would soon be eaten through) and tilt the bottle to and 
fro to allow a drop or two to leak out. 

You remember that | oz. of the silver nitrate solution 
is in a bottle (No. 4). Add some of the contents of this 
bottle to tumbler No. 1, drop by drop, until for a second 
time the solution loses its clearness ; when held up to the 
light it will be of a translucent yellow colour. 

Next, to tumbler No. 1 add the potash solution from 
No. 2, the result being a blackish liquid. Again add 
ammonia, drop by drop, and stir with a chemically clean 
glass rod all the time until the liquid is much clearer and 
the precipitate (a powder falling to the bottom of the 
vessel) is full of black particles. Strain the whole by 
pouring it through a chemically cleaned glass funnel in 
which a piece of fresh cotton-wool has been placed to 
act as a filter {see Fig. 2) ; or, if this is impossible, allow 
plenty of time for the precipitate to settle, and then pour 
off the clear liquid. To this clear liquid add, drop by 
drop, more of the silver nitrate solution from the bottle 

265 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

until a very slight precipitate appears, when you must 
instantly stop the addition. 

The glass should be " patent " plate, and has two 
distinct sides — a right and a wrong. These may be dis- 
tinguished, after chemically cleaning as described, by 
breathing upon them. The film of condensed moisture 
will leave the right side rapidly and evenly ; this is the 
best one to be silvered, while on the wrong side the con- 
densed vapour will dissipate slowly and irregularly. 

Get a dish — say a photographer's glass developing 
dish — of such a size that it will easily accommodate the 
glass to be silvered, both dish and glass being chemically 
clean, of course. Set the dish level, pour in the solution, 
and add distilled water to give sufficient depth. But 
before immersing the glass, pour in the glucose from 
tumbler No. 3, stir up, and then introduce the glass, 
slanting it so that it will not carry down air bubbles with 
it. The glass would ordinarily settle on the bottom of 
the dish, but this must be prevented, either by two blocks 
of glass seccotined to the dish at the extreme sides or 
ends {see Fig. 3), or, instead, a piece of wood must be cut 
out as in the sectional view (Fig. 4), and the glass be 
cemented to it with pitch. (At the proper time it is easily 
removed with a thin chisel carefully inserted at the edge.) 
Whatever arrangement is adopted, there must be a space 
of about \ in. between the underneath surface of the glass 
and the bottom of the dish. 

As the glass is lowered into the solution the latter 
becomes of a purplish-pink colour, becoming gradually 
darker. In the course of 15 to 30 minutes the silver 
will have deposited on the glass, which may then be 

266 



How to Silver Glass for Mirrors 

removed, carefully washed, and placed on edge to dry. 
This accomplished, the silver may be polished for a 
quarter of an hour with a pad of cotton-wool covered 
with a soft fine washleather. 

A silver film is deposited also on the surface of the 
dish, but the greatest quantity separates as a fine powder 
and is lost, from the silverer's standpoint. 

The above is particularly adapted for silvering the 




^«s 



Fig. 2.— Filtering 
the Solution. 



Glsep Slips or Blooke Level of Solut lOf 
Fig. 3 

Figs. 3 and 4. — Methods of supporting Glass 
in the Silvering Dish 



speculum of a telescope or microscope, but can be used 
equally well for small pieces of plate glass. 

The silver film when formed must be protected, or it 
will very quickly lose its colour from contact with im- 
purities in the air, notably sulphur ; for this reason the film 
should be coated twice with good copal varnish, after 
the silver is quite dry, and when it is slightly warm. Use 
a very soft brush. The mirror will reflect from both 
surfaces of the film, and for certain optical work, where the 
reflection is not through the glass, the film must not, of 
course, be varnished. 

267 



WATERPROOFING TENTS, GROUND SHEETS 
AND GARMENTS 

Waterproofs of the oilskin kind are easily made. Most 
people know that they are cotton, linen or even silk 
dressed with boiled linseed oil repeatedly, but few are 
aware that to get the best results only the " double- 
boiled oil " should be used, this giving the familiar yellow 
colour, drying better than ordinary boiled oil, and having 
more marked waterproofing qualities. To get black 
waterproofs, you merely add to the oil some oil black or 
vegetable blacky but not lampblackc 

Let us assume that you are going to waterproof a 
tent canvas or a number of ground sheets which are to 
be used on a camping expedition. If you have not the 
use of a suitable heated kitchen, in which to hang the 
sheets for drying, do the work on a sunny day and hang 
them in the open. Spread the canvas, new and unwashed, 
on a table, or on some clean boards propped up to form 
a bench, have the oil in a wide vessel close at hand, and 
mix nothing with it but the colouring matter if this is 
needed. Apply the oil to the canvas, etc., by means of 
any suitable bristle brush, such as an old clothes-brush. 
Don't try to saturate the cloth, but do your best to get 
a good even coat. As you finish the pieces, lightly fold 
them and push them out of the way until all have been 
done. Then pull them out straight and hang them up 

268 



Waterproofing Tents 

to dry, a process that will take from one to several days, 
according to the drying facilities, weather, etc. 

When thoroughly dry, the canvas is shaped, sewn and 
otherwise worked up, and is then given two more coats 
of the oil, allowing each to get thoroughly dry. If much 
used, the sheets can be given a reviving coat every summer 
to keep them in good condition. Of course, if you like, 
the sheets, garments, etc., can be made up wholly un- 
oiled, and the oiling done as a finishing process, but there 
is a great likelihood of wrinkles and puckers if you work 
on this system, as the first coat of oil shrinks the fabric. 
You will find that the second and third coats go on much 
more easily than the first. 

Oilskins, however, are not always suitable, and what 
is known as "chemical" waterproofing, which scarcely 
affects the appearance of the fabric, is preferred. This, 
too, is easily executed. In principle it consists in filling 
up the fibres of the cloth with a soap that will not dissolve 
in water. You need to prepare two solutions. No. 1 
is a solution of 1 lb. of best yellow soap in 1 gal. of water, 
and No. 2. is, similarly, 1 lb. of alum in 1 gal. of water. 
You can the more easily prepare the two solutions fairly 
hot, but use No. 1 warm and No. 2 slightly warm. Put 
the fabric in No. 1, and allow it to stay for at least half 
an hour so that the soap gets on every particle of fibre. 
Then remove it, wring it over the vessel, smooth it out, 
and transfer to No. 2 (alum) solution for a second half- 
hour's treatment. Again wring out the cloth, rinse it in 
clean water, again wring out (or pass it between the rollers 
of a wringer), and hang up to dry in the open air. That 
is simple enough, but it is very effective. 

269 



MAKING DOVETAIL JOINTS IN WOOD 



There can be no satisfaction of the boy mechanic's 
ambition until he has tried his hand at a dovetail joint. 
Now, the job is not so difficult as it looks, but for a start 
make a fairly big joint in stout common wood. It ought 
to be unnecessary to advise the reader to practise on 





Fig. 1. — Half-lap Dovetail Joint 



Fig, 2. — Single Dovetail Joint 



model joints before attempting to dovetail together the 
sides of a nice box or drawer, but is it ? When ambition 
and skill run a race, which wins ? 

Single Dovetails. — First let us make a "single" 
dovetail — just such a joint as we might use in con- 
structing framework. Both Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are 

270 



Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 

"single" dovetails, the former being generally given 
the name of " half-lap dovetail." Bearing in mind the 
method of making an ordinary half-lap joint {see p. 30), 
this form of dovetail will prove easy enough. 

You must not think that the wider you make the outer 
end of the "tail" the stronger the joint will be. The 
angle of the sides of the " tail " should not exceed about 
15°, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 3). In very hard, 







Fig. 3.— Diagram showing Dovetail Angle 




Fig. 4.— Model Half-lap Dovetail Joint set out 



tough stuff, the angle may be more, and in soft, weak wood, 
as little as 10°. 

The two parts of a lap dovetail joint are set out as in 
Fig. 4. The square, gauge and bevel are the setting-aut 
tools required. 

But how is the blade of the bevel to be set to the 
required inclination ? Take any planed-up piece of wood 
and square a line a b (Fig. 5) across it, and divide the line; 
into inches (or other uniform parts). Set off on the edge- 
of the board to one side of the Hne a space of 1 in. (or 
one part). On a narrow piece of stuff, make all the; 

^7' 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

distances half-inches ; but the larger the unit the greater 
the accuracy. Number the divisions on the line, say 1 
to 5 or 6 (not shown in Fig. 5). Divide space 2-3 into two 
parts, the space 3-4 into three parts, and number them 
as indicated, respectively 2|, 3| and 3|. Place the sliding 
bevel on the edge of the board with the blade right over 
the 1-in. mark to the left of the line, and let its point reach 
the 3^ mark on the line a b. Tighten the clamp of the 
bevel; it will now be set at 15° to 16°, and with sufficient 
accuracy for the purpose. Setting the blade to mark 5 
gives an angle of approximately 12°, and to mark 2| an 
angle of 20° to 22°. 

Professional workmen use a little template for marking 
out dovetails, and I think you will find its use makes for 
ease and accuracy. You can easily cut one for yourself. 
Set out a piece of tinplate as in Fig. 6. This can be any 
length, but 4 in. or 5 in. will do admirably, and the width 
may be 1 1 in., more or less. The dotted line shows where 
it will be bent at right angles to the shape given in the 
side view (Fig. 7). You will first have made up your mind 
as to the angle to which the dovetails are to be cut, and 
will then set out this angle from the end of the metal to 
the shoulder line. The shaded parts are now to be cut out 
with snips, strong heavy scissors, or with hammer and 
chisel, finishing very carefully to the line with a file. The 
method of cutting must depend upon the thickness of the 
metal. After cutting, the piece will be bent as shown, 
with a hammer, over the square edge of a board. Now 
if this little template is put on the edge or end of the 
pieces which are to be jointed, it will be a very simple 
matter to scratch the correct outhne of the dovetail by 

272 



o 



< 

> 

o 

Q 





Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 

means of an awl or the point of a knife. The template 
will last a lifetime. 

First we will cut the pin on the piece a (Fig. 1). The 
shoulder of the joint must be set out with a square or 
gauge on all four sides of the piece. Across the end grain 
of the stuff gauge a line at half the thickness, and square 
this line down on the edges to meet the shoulder lines 
already set out. Put the stuff in the vice, and saw down 
with the grain parallel with the face until you reach 




Fig. 6 



Fig. 5. — Obtaining Dovetail Angle 
with Sliding Bevel 



Fig. 7 

Figs. 6 and 7.— Metal Template 
before and after Bending 



the shoulder lines. You must next remove a half thick- 
ness of stuff, so on that face opposite to the one where 
the ^ dovetail is to be, cut in with a saw to half the 
thickness, so as to detach a piece of wood. Next with a 
saw cut in on the shoulder lines on the edges until you 
reach the slant Hnes that define the sides of the pin. 
Then put the work, slightly inclined, into the vice, and 
remove the waste chip by chip with the chisel, the handle 
being held in one hand, and the lower part of the blade 
between the thumb and first finger of the other. 
s 273 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



For the setting out of the socket piece b (Fig. 1), 
either the bevel or the little template can be used, the 
lines being squared down on the two edges to meet a 

horizontal line at half the 
thickness, which will be 
obtained by means of the 
gauge. The waste will 
be removed by sawing 
down on the slanting 
lines and then with the 
chisel taking out the stuff 
chip by chip, as explained 
on page 273. A more accurate method of setting out the 
socket piece is to use the pin already worked as the 
template or pattern, laying it on the second piece of 
wood and marking the outline of the socket by means of 




Fig. 8.— Scribing Socket from Half- 
lap Dovetail 




Fig. 10.— Scribing Pin 

from Socket of Single 

Dovetail 




Fig, 9. — Single Dovetail Set Out, and 
the Socket Sawn and Worked 



awl or knife, taking care afterwards to saw down to these 
lines in the waste, the reason for which precaution I have 
already remarked on in an earlier chapter {see Fig. 8). 

274 



Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 

The form of single dovetail shown in Fig. 2 is excellent 
for framework. In this case it is better to cut the socket 
first and to mark out the pin from this. As before, you 
need to see that the shoulder line is squared on all four 
faces (Fig. 9), while the slant lines across the end must be 
set out by means of bevel or template ; lines connecting 
these slant lines to the shoulder lines on face and back of 
stuff are then drawn by 
means of square and pencil. 
Put the work vertically in a 
vice, saw down on the slant 
lines, and remove the waste 
with a chisel as usual. 
Place the socket piece on 
the other member of the 
joint to form a right angle, 
and with a slender awl 
scribe the shape of the pin 
on the work as shown in 
Fig. 10. Square the shoulder 
lines and also the lines 
across the end, then saw 
down outside the slant lines, and cut in from the side 
so as to detach the two small pieces. 

Often it is possible to save a great deal of time in 
cutting out a large dovetail socket by using a bow-saw, 
as in Fig. 11, cleaning out the socket by means of a chisel. 
The bottom of the socket is finished with the chisel held 
bevel outwards, the work being laid on the bench with the 
narrower part of the socket uppermost — a most important 
point. 

275 




Fig. 11.— Sawing Out Waste of 
Large Single Dovetail 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




The Box Dovetail. — There is a great variety of 

dovetailed joints, but I propose to explain only one more, 

and that is the box or com- 
mon dovetail (Fig. 12). For 
a start, do not attempt to 
make a very fine joint, but 
work in common wood, and 
make the angle of the dove- 
tail slight. As in all joint 
making, the setting out is of 
the greatest importance, and 
this setting out can only be 
properly done after the wood 
has been carefully planed up 
smooth and parallel, and the 
edges have been shot true. 
I have already explained 

what " shooting " is. The work is held in a shooting 

board over which its edge very slightly projects, and a 

keen plane is then " shot " along to take off a very fine 

shaving or two from the 

end grain. 

Shoulder lines must 

now be squared or 

gauged round (see Fig. 

13) on both pieces, 

and, as in all joints of 

this simple kind, these 

lines will be distant from the ends of the stuff by 

an amount exactly equal to the thickness of the stuff. 

In the first place, it is easy to get confused as to which 

276 



i^ Fig. 12. — Common or Box 
Dovetail Joint 




Fig, 13. — Gauging Shoulder Line for 
Dovetail Joint 



Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 




Fig. 14. — Spacing Dovetail Pins with 
Dividers 



piece carries the pins and which piece contains the 
sockets, because, as a matter of fact, there are pins and 
sockets on each of them ; but in the joint shown by 

Fig. 15 the part that 
carries the four thin 
projections has the 
" pins " whilst in the 
other are two com- 
plete sockets and 
two half - sockets. 
Woodworkers do not 
agree among them- 
selves as to whether 
the pins or the sockets should be cut first, but I am 
going to describe the " pin first " method, and I think 
you will find it quite satisfactory. 

We will have chosen two pieces of board in which 
two complete pins and two end 
pins can be cut, as in the illus- 
tration (Fig. 15). The shoulder 
lines have been squared round. 
At the extreme ends mark off 
on the face from each edge half 
the thickness of the thinnest 
part of a pin. This " thinnest 
part" is shown on the edge of the 
socket piece, and its dimension 
varies with the thickness of the stuff that is being joined 
up. For wood up to f in. thick, the thinnest part of the 
pins may be I in. thick, but don't aim at too fine work 
at the start. With dividers or compasses {see Fig. 14) 

277 




Fig. 15. — Common or Box 
Dovetail Joint 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



divide the space between the two points already marked 
on the shoulder line into three, and set off on each side of 
these marks half the thickness of the pin. Set off that 
distance also inside the two end marks 
already made. Next, with a small try- 
square and an awl, draw 
lines from the shoulder line 
to the end of the work to 
indicate the sides of the 
pins {see Fig. 16). 

The slant of the dove- 
tails will now need to be in- 
dicated on the end grain of 
the piece, for which purpose 
you must fix the wood vertically in a vice, and by means of 
a bevel or template {see Figs. 17 and 18) mark the ends of 
the pins across the end grain, continuing the work by means 
of the square on the back of the work so as to draw the sides 




Fig. ^6. — Squaring Down Dovetail 
Pins 




Fig. 17. — Marking Ends of Dovetail 
Pins from Sliding Bevel 




Fig. 18.— Marking Ends of 

Dovetail Pins from 

Template 



of the pins as far as the shoulder line. The little template 
illustrated can easily be made by the boy mechanic in 
wood, or, as already explained, in metal, or it can be 
bought ready made. 

278 



Making Dovetail Joints in Wood 

Keeping the wood fixed vertically in the bench vice, 
cut down with a fine saw on the slant lines which cross 
the end grain, but see that the saw cuts keep accurately 
to the parallel lines that have been squared down from 
the end to the shoulder lines. A chisel is used for cutting 
out the waste, but, by the way, first make sure which is 
the waste, and to prevent mistakes it is better after setting 
out to mark with a pencil cross any stuff that is to be 
removed, as otherwise an accident or mistake is the easiest 





Fig. 19. — Scribing Dovetail 
Sockets from Pins 



Fig. 20. — Squaring Ends of 
Dovetail Sockets 



thing possible. Your best plan will be to use a fine carving 
chisel, particularly if the work is rather small. Clean out 
the recesses between the pins, and do everything you can 
to produce sharp, true edges, and a perfectly flat bottom 
to each of the recesses. Of course, each recess is really a 
socket, but if I label them "sockets," you may easily 
become confused between the pin piece and the socket 
piece. 

This box dovetail is really, as by this time you will 
have discovered for yourself, a number of single dovetails 

279 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

cut side by side in the same piece of wood, and you will 
therefore be prepared to understand that the socket piece 
is set out by " scribing " — that is, the pin piece is laid on 
the other member of the joint (on which the shoulder lines 
have already been squared), and a slender pointed awl is 
used as in Fig. 19, to " scribe " the shapes of the sockets 
from the pins. 

As all you have so far marked on the socket piece is 
the shoulder line and the slant lines on one face, you will 
need to use a square (Fig. 20), and continue the socket 
lines across the edge of the stuff. The sockets are cut 
out in exactly the same way as the pins were formed, 
having previously taken the trouble to mark with a cross 
the parts that are to be removed. 



280 



TURNING METAL IN THE LATHE 
By a. Millward 

With the lathe as described in the chapter on wood 
turning it is quite possible to do a limited amount of 
metal turning of a light and simple character. For in- 
stance, it may be desired to turn a small knob or handle 
in brass, or turn a small rod or spindle, or do a number of 
small jobs as necessity arises ; and these are quite pos- 
sible in the lathe shown on p. 220. 

Metal - turning Tools.— These have quite different 
cutting edges from those of wood-turning tools, due to 




Fig. 1. — Metal-turning Graver 

the difference in hardness and character of the material to 
be turned. Since the lathe is only adapted for very light 
metal turning it will be better to confine the attempts 
to turning in brass, and for this purpose a single tool, a 
"graver," will probably be all that is required. This 
{see Fig. 1) comprises a bar of square steel sharpened 
at an angle so as to produce a diamond-shaped point ; 
the face of the tool must be kept perfectly fiat, and 
the tool must be kept well sharpened by grinding the 
flat face only. 

281 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

Rest and Chucks. — A metal-turning rest is usually 
flatter on its face and of a greater width but of a less 
length than one used for wood turning so as to provide a 
greater width of bearing surface for the tool. 

A " chuck " of some kind for holding the metal is a 
necessity for any work that cannot be held and turned 
between centres. A " self-centring chuck " will save 
much time if round or circular work is to be turned. 
Such a chuck comprises three radially arranged jaws, 
which can be moved equally towards or away from the 
centre, and between which the work is gripped. For 
holding irregular work a chuck having independently 
movable jaws will be required. 

A Simple Metai-turning Job. — In order to turn a 
bar or spindle between centres proceed as follows : — 
Having obtained a bar of a suitable length, first square 
or file the ends so that they are at a right angle to its 
length. Now find the centre, that is the axial centre, of 
the bar by marking intersecting lines on its ends. A 
convenient way of doing this is to mark two lines at an 
angle to each other by means of a centre square, a little 
tool somewhat resembling a T-square but having, in 
some types, two pins in the head of the squares ; the edge 
of its blade intersects at right angles a line connecting 
the two pins. Another method is to set a pair of dividers 
to approximately half the diameter and to scribe a series 
of lines by resting one leg of the dividers on the edge or 
circumference whilst the other one is used for marking 
the end face ; finally the centre between the marks 
must be judged. Mark the centres when found with a 
centre punch, and then, on each end, drill a small hole 

282 



Turning Metal in the Lathe 

about I in. deep. Now take the centre punch, which 
should be sharpened to the same angle as the lathe centres 
(usually 60 deg.), put the point in the hole and hit it 
smartly until a coned-shaped hole results, which forms a 
bearing for the lathe centres when the bar is placed 
between them. 

It is now necessary to pro- 
vide means to cause the bar to 
rotate with the rotating man- 
drel of the fixed headstock. 
For this purpose a "carrier" 
is used. A simple form of 
carrier is shown in Fig. 2; 
the rod a is inserted in the ^ 
hole b, and the carrier gripped 
to the rod by screwing up the 
screw c. The carrier is so fixed 
on the rod that the end d 
comes into contact with a 
pin or driver secured on the 
face-plate. 

The graver is now held 
firmly on the rest, which is so 
adjusted in height that the 
point of the tool can be held 
so that it is in line with the axial centre of the Avork ; 
the position will be quickly found by experiment, as the 
tool will not cut properly unless the correct position is 
found. The tool must only be moved towards the work 
very gradually so as to remove quite a small amount of 
metal at a time. When the desired diameter is reached 

283 




Fig. 2. - Metal-turner's Lathe 
Dog or Carrier 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

the tool is turned over so as to present one of the sides of 
the diamond-shaped face to the work, which will remove 
the irregularities produced by the point of the tool. With 
a little practice a perfectly bright and smooth surface 
can be obtained which will not require any further finish- 
ing. By altering the angle or position of the " graver " 
tool it will be found possible to produce rounded surfaces, 
V-shaped grooves, square recesses or shoulders, but it 
will not be possible to produce rounded hollows with it, 
for which purpose a rounded hollow-nose tool will be 
necessary. 



9B4 



FRETWORK IN METAL AND IVORY 



Equipment. — Saw-piercing in metal is a higher stage 
of the fret-cutter's art. It requires special saw-blades 
having very much finer teeth — so fine that the unaided 
eye can scarcely see them. A suitable 
grade is No. 00, and only the highest 
quality with rounded-backs should be 
bought. The woodworker's fretsaw 
frame can be used if desired, but a 
smaller frame is more suitable. The 
type shown in Fig. 1 has the advan- 
tage that the handle part slides along 
the back when the thumbscrew is 
loosened, thus allowing of broken pieces 
of saw - blade being accommodated. 
Fig. 2 compares fretsaw blades for 
wood and metal. 

Ordinary paste does not 
adhere very well to metal, 
and it is better to use a 
mixture of starch, gum 
arable, and sugar. The 
gum arable can be bought at any oilshop. One ounce of 
it placed in a piece of muslin and soaked for a few 
hours in water and then turned out into a jam-jar 

285 




Fig.l.- 

Metal 

Fretsaw 

or 

Piercing 

Saw 



Fig. 2. — Metal and 
Wood Fretsaw 
Blades 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



containing 1 oz. of starch and 4 oz. of sugar with about 
I pint of water will make a good paste for the purpose, 
the mixture being boiled until it thickens. 

Applying the Design. — Let us take a useful little 
pattern like Fig. 3, a design for a large brooch. Make a 
tracing of the design on thin paper, and, using only just 
paste enough, stick it down on the metal. (To get a pair 
of patterns when the design is reversible, make two tracings 
on very thin translucent paper, and in pasting them 
down see that one of them is reversed so that its face is 
in contact with the metal.) Allow to dry thoroughly 

before proceeding further. 
When the fretting is com- 
I>1 pleted, the remains of the 
paper will need to be soaked 
off in hot water. 

Professionals frequently 
adopt a different method of 
transferring the design. They 
use carbon paper and a 




Fig. 3. 



-Design for Large Brocch ^ard point for transferring it 

or Waistbelt Clasp ^ ° 



to the metal and then, while 
the lines are fresh, go over them with a steel point, which 
gives them an indelible nature. Metal that has been 
smeared with gamboge (a lump can be bought at a 
chemist's for a trifle, and most colour-boxes include it) 
and allowed to dry can be drawn on with an ordinary 
pencil. 

The "pouncing" method is useful in transferring all 
kinds of designs for all sorts of purposes. The pattern 
or a tracing of it is converted into a stencil by pricking 

286 



Fretwork in Metal and Ivory 

over its lines with a fine piercer, awl or needle ; the coarser 
the pattern, the wider may the holes be spaced. The 
stencil is laid down on the metal and rubbed over with a 
little muslin bag containing fine chalk, the pattern then 
appearing in dotted lines on the metal, and being easily 
made permanent by going over them with a fine pen or 
hair pencil and brunswick black thinned with turpentine, 
or by scratching over them with a steel point. The 
stencU can be used scores of times, and the method could 
be employed for wood fretwork, using, instead of the black, 
a very dilute mixture of Chinese white and water, and 
applying it in such thin lines that the saw would utterly 
obHterate them. 

Using the Saw on Meta!. — The saw should be 
worked much more slowly and deliberately on metal 
than on wood, very little pressure should be apphed, and 
the point of cutting should be kept supplied with oil or 
with turpentine, which, together with an occasional rub 
of the saw on a piece of beeswax, will make a big differ- 
ence to the ease and speed of working. The blade soon 
gets hot with the friction, and must be given a few 
moments to cool before proceeding. As before, holes 
must be drilled to take the blade, for which purpose the 
Archimedean drill stock AviU come in handy again, but the 
boring-bit used on wood will not be suitable, and in its 
place you must get a tiny twist-drill, and keep it lubri- 
cated with turpentine, bearing in mind that it is not 
strong enough to stand much pressure. An alternative 
method is to prick through with a fine piercer or awl, 
first placing the metal on a block of hard wood. 

Beautiful fretwork can be done in copper, brass, 

287 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

aluminium, ivory, ebonite, and, of course, gold and silver ; 
when working in the precious metals there should be a bag 
of leather or waterproof material underneath the bench 
to catch the waste, as this has market value. Silver 
works out fairly expensively, but for occasional articles, 
such as pendants, ladies' ornaments, etc., it may be 
used of No. 23 gauge metal (standard wire gauge), which 
is -024 in. thick, and equivalent to about 9 sq. in. to the 
ounce — enough for, say, two club badges, or for five 
hatpin heads or charms. 

The saw cannot do the whole of the work, and you 
will soon find that much of the delicate detail must be 
executed with tiny files, of which two or three selected 
shapes, including a needle file, should be bought. Files, 
also, must be used for correcting outlines. A triangular 
file is best for the sharp angles. 

Finishing. — The cutting having been completed, the 
paper pattern (if used) must be removed with hot water, 
and the metal laid upon a block of wood or lead and 
worked over with fine pumice powder and water rubbed 
vigorously with a large smooth cork. This will remove 
any swarf at the cut edges and prepare the piece for 
polishing, which is a matter of time and patience, and is 
done with a soft leather and tripoli powder and oil, finishing 
in the same way with jewellers' rouge appHed dry. 



288 



BUILDING A DOG KENNEL 



In this chapter I am giving you drawings for a big kennel. 
Some of you may think it is far too large, inasmuch as it 
is 4 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, but I am taking a rather big 
construction because, as a matter of fact, the actua 
making is easier in the case of a large kennel than with a 
small one, and there is no reason whatever why you 
should not build, from the instructions and drawings 
here given, a much smaller house should you so wish. 
For example, if you reduce length and breadth to 2 ft. 




Fig. 1. — Dog Kennel Solidly Built in Sections 
T 289 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 




Fig. 2. — Front Elevation of Kennel 

and packed flat, 
while the construc- 
tion is very solid 
and good enough for 
a lifetime's use. 

You must study 
the drawings before 
you cut a single 
piece of timber, so 
as to realise fully 
what you propose to 
do. There are seven 
main pieces in the 
construction : the 
floor, four sides, and 
two roof pieceSj^and 



and 1 ft. 6 in. respec- 
tively, you get a very 
nice size kennel for a 
small terrier, and the 
drawings will still answer 
exactly as before, except 
that the bearers and 
ledges need not be so 
thick as shown in the 
illustrations. There are 
some excellent points 
about the kennel here 
shown, not the least of 
which is that it can be 
readily taken to pieces 




Fig. 3. — Longitudinal Section through 
Kennel 

290 



Building a Dog Kennel 

each of these is built up as a separate unit. You will notice 
in the illustrations that a number of bolts and nuts are 
shown. I advocate these if there is any chance that the 
kennel may not be required for some time, or if it is to be 
made in one place and transported to another ; but there is 
not the slightest reason why you should not use 2|-in. 
or 3-in. brads or nails (to be clenched over) or 2|-in. 
screws if you so prefer. 




i^)j M)i>}n>>jj,AM ^^>^^ff}}JWPJ 



! G 



THZn^ 



^jSBSm 



Fig. 4. — End Elevation of Kennel 



Fig. 5. — Horizontal Section 
through Kennel 



You will realise that the principle of construction is 
first of all to build up the seven main pieces accurately to 
size, and then bolt or nail them together. This is a much 
better plan than building up the kennel as a whole, board 
by board, and it is a method which you will find always 
answers best in any work of this kind — poultry houses, 
beehives, summerhouses, and so on. All portable 
constructions are bcs>t built in sections, as here shown. 

291 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

You can make a start with the four sides, or rather 
with the front, end, and two sides. All the boards consist 
of grooved and tongued stuff 6 in. wide and preferably 
1 in. thick, but slightly thinner if you like ; | in. stuff 
would do for a small kennel. See that the boarding is 
planed up and fits well together before it leaves the timber 
yard (if you are buying it locally). You can take all the 
dimensions from the drawings, which, except the general 
view, Fig. 1, are to a 
scale of I in. = 1 ft. 
Fig. 2 is the front ele- 
vation, Fig. 8 the 
vertical section length- 
ways of the kennel. 
Fig. 4 the end eleva- 
tion, and Fig. 5 a plan 
or section through the 
body of the kennel. 

As here shown, 
the sides are 3 ft. 1^ in. high, but, of course, you are 
at liberty to vary this by an inch or two as you 
think proper. Eight widths will be required, and 
they will be nailed top and bottom to two bearers or 
ledges,. A and b; the top one a is 2 in. deep and 1| in. 
thick, and the bottom one b. 3 in. deep and 1| in. thick. 
These bearers or ledges will come flush with the top and 
bottom edges of the boards. At the ends you will nail 
fillets or angle pieces g, which need to be about 1| in. 
square, and the construction when this has been done will 
resemble Fig. 6, which shows the inside view of one of the 
sides. It will be necessary to saw off the extreme ends of 

292 



Fig. 6. — Internal View of Side of Kennel 



Building a Dog Kennel 

the fillets or angle pieces to accommodate the top and 
bottom ledges, as shown in Fig. 6. Both of the sides of 
the kennel will be the same. 

Now for the front and end. All the materials will be 
of the same thicknesses, etc., as for the sides, and the 
pieces will be built up by means of two bearers or ledges 
as before, as shown at c and D. The front and end are 
3 ft. 1| in. high to the top of the sides and about 4 ft. 8 in. 
high to the apex of the angle or gable. Fig. 7 is the inside 
view of the front or end, showing the positions of the 
bearers, and it will be noted that these are cut away at 
the ends to allow for the ledges a on the sides when the 
four main pieces come together. 

The entrance hole in the front can now be cut. In the 
illustrations it is assumed to be about 1 ft. 9 in. wide, and 
about 2 ft. 8 in. high from the ground level, but this will, 
of course, depend upon the size of the dog, and whether 
you are working to the dimensions here given or to a much 
smaller scale. Set out the opening centrally with square, 
rule, compass, and pencil. Saw down with a hand saw as 
far as you can, but don't saw through the bearer d 
(Fig. 2), and finish with a turn or compass saw. Smooth 
the edges with glasspaper held on a block of wood, 
using, if possible, a curved block for the glasspapering 
at the head of the opening. It would strengthen the 
front if an extra fillet were nailed across (on the inside) 
under c (Fig. 2), and just over the opening, before 
cutting. 

We can now consider the floor of the kennel. As 
drawn, it is about 2 ft. 10 in. wide with an extreme length 
of 4 ft. It will be built up of about the same sort of 

293 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

material as was used for the sides, and nailed to two 
ledges as shown in section at f in Fig. 3, and also in the 
general view of the floor shown in Fig. 8. In Figs. 5 and 
8, you will note that square notches will have to be made 
to clear the fillets or angle pieces, and, in addition, the 
front end of the floor is cut away at the sides so that the 
centre part projects a trifle past the opening. 

We have now to make the two parts of the roof. They 
will each consist of five widths of 6 in. wide material, of 
the same thickness as used elsewhere ; but one part of the 
roof will be narrower than the other by an amount equal 
to the thickness of the stuff used. If you study the front 
elevation (Fig. 2) you will easily see why. One part of 
the roof overlaps the other, and if they were of exactly 
the same width, the eaves at one side would be lower than 
on the other ; so if you are using | in. material, saw off a 
strip I in. wide, and you can probably do this more easily 
from the completed roof part. The bearers or ledges 
can be of the same material as the bottom ledges of the 
sides, that is, 3 in. by 1| in., and it is better to have three 
bearers for each roof part. You will, of course, note that 
the roof boarding is longer than the side of the kennel. 
A length of about 4 ft. 8 in. will give an overhang at each 
end of about 4 in., and this is advisable inasmuch as it 
helps to throw off the rain, keeps the dog more comfort- 
able, and preserves the kennel from decay. You need 
to be very careful in deciding the positions of the end 
roof bearers, as these must, of course, just clear the 
inner surfaces of the front and end of the kennel. 
Study Fig. 3, and this point will be obvious. 

We have now the seven main pieces, and before we do 

294 



Building a Dog Kennel 

anything more we might as well give them all, except the 
floor, a couple of coats of paint or good outside varnish, 
but do not paint the inside. A coat of brown or green 
stain before applying the varnish is not a bad idea. 

Let us set about assembling the kennel. We need a 
good flat, clean floor, or a flat bench top or table 
top upon which to work. Prop up one of the sides, 




m. 



"^^ 



Fig. 7. — Internal View of End 
or Back of Kennel 



Fig. 8. — Underneath View of 
Floor of Kennel 



and put the end in position against it. Having 
settled whether you are going to use bolts or screws, 
the latter being much the easier, it will be necessary 
in the case of bolts to bore holes from the end right 
through the angle piece, as fully explained in the detail 
sectional view (Fig. 9), which shows a section taken 
on the line h in Fig. 2 ; on the right is one of the 
sides to which g is nailed, and at the bottom is either 
the front or the end, to which g is bolted. One little 

295 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



point : You will notice that in this section the extreme 
corner of the angle piece has been trimmed off, with the 
object of not leaving any hard corhers for our friend the 
dog to knock himself against. Having secured the end, 
place the second side in position and proceed as before, 
taking great care that all the joints are square, and that 
there is no tendency for the rectangular construction to 
go out of shape as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 10. 





Fig. 9.— Details of Corner 

Joint of Kennel, showing 

Bolt and Nut 



Fig. 10. — Diagram showing 
Tendency for a Square Con- 
struction to go out of shape 



Now let us put the floor in. It will easily go into the 
three-sided box already formed if it is slanted a trifle. 
There is no real need to nail it down to the bearers, but 
you can please yourself. 

The front can now be added, and all will be ready to 
receive the roof. Get someone to help you to hold 
the two parts of the roof in something like their proper 
positions. You will find that some little adjustment 
with the plane will probably be necessary on the top 
edges of the sides, so that the roof boards " sit " well in 
place. The roof bearers are secured to the front and ends 
with bolts or screws, exactly as before. You will need 

296 



Building a Dog Kennel 

altogether eight bolts at each end of the kennel or a 
dozen screws. 

All the woodwork is now completed, but the construc- 
tion would not be watertight if left in its present state, 
and it is advisable to get some good-quality tarred felt 
with which to finish the roof, allowing the felt to project 
all round for about f in. A big kennel like this will of, 
course, be kept in a yard or garden, and so must be very 
well protected with paint or varnish against the weather. 



297 



LAYING THE RAILS FOR A MODEL 
RAILWAY 

By Henry Greenly 

The author's practical experience in this direction dates 
from the time when an ingenious and skilful friend made 
him a wooden model locomotive which had flanged wheels 

for running in the orthodox 



■flange- ^1 



N?0 



M 



rl 



~n 



_2. 
64 



read 



M 



IN? I 



,iX" 

I 32. 



t' 



V-'i'--- -X 



N?2 



3 » 

64 






Jl 



2- 



1^ 

7. . 
60- 



3L 



Fig. 1. — Standard Gauges and 
Wheel Dimensions (Indoor 
Model Railways) 



manner on rails. At the 
outset the locomotive ran 
by force of gravity, but later 
it was improved by the 
addition of an "elastic" 
drive such as that now com- 
monly adopted for model 
aeroplanes. Clockwork 
motors and electric 
mechanisms had yet to 
make their advent for 
model locomotive work. 

The rails were hard 
wood strips of about | in. 
by I in. rectangular section 
glued and pinned down to 
a baseboard. The points 
were fashioned with a pen- 
knife, and were pivoted at 
298 



Laying Rails for a Model Railway 

the heel with a fine cabinet-maker's brad. This crudt 
affair, however, was sufficient to make clear the importance 
of accuracy in the matter of rail gauge and wheel widths. 
The " between-tyre dimension" is of the utmost import- 
ance in any railway, real or model. The London, Brighton 
and South Coast Railway suffered a bad accident at 
Stoat's Nest, due to the wheels of a carriage spreading 
out. Miniature " Stoat's Nests' " will happen continually 
on a model railway unless the work in these particulars 
is done Math a reasonable degree of accuracy. 




POl r-<T RODD'NG 



Fig. 2. — Diagram showing Railway Points with all the Parts Named 

Fig. 1 shows the standard dimensions for the three 
smaller model railway gauges, Nos. 0, 1, and 2. It will 
be noticed that almost the "same width of tyre is 
adopted for all three sizes. This is because the minimum 
it is practicable to adopt is reached on the No. 1 gauge. 
The No. gauge cannot be reduced, as the same size rails, 
etc., are common to both sizes. 

Fig. 2 will enable the boy mechanic to identify the 
essential parts of a standard British arrangement of rails 
and points. The chairs and sleepers are omitted ; in 
model work the arrangement of these will depend on the 
material available. 

The question of material for rails will naturally 

299 



Ai — Hard wood rail 
nailed to base- 
board : suitable 
for cardboard or 
wooden engines 



B. — Square iron 
rail, screwed 
to sleepers or 
baseboard; for 
indoor or out- 
door lines 



D. — Umbrella ribs 
nailed to base- 
board ; nail holes 
drilled or notched 
with S-corner file, 



E, — Angle iron 
screw ed or 
nailed down. 
T-iron inverted 
may be used in 
the same way 




C. — Strip iron rails driven 
into slots ' in heavy- 
section sleepers 



F. — Tinplate rail 
and sleepers as 
used for clock- 
work railways 



G. — Hollow tin or 
brass rail in 
pressed sheet 
slide-on chairs 




H. — Similar arrange- 
ment to G, but solid 
steel rail and spring 
sheet steel chairs 
which slide on ; 
sometimes cast 
typemetal chairs of 
similar design are 
used 



J. — Standard British keyed 
chair system ; brass or 
steel rail, cast typemetal 
chairs, wooden keys out- 
side the rails. The best, 
but most expensive, track 



K.— Flat - bottomed 
solid rail (Ameri- 
can style), dog- 
spiked or screwed 
down with dog- 
washer (both are 
shown) ; not gener- 
ally made in small 
sizes 



Fig. 3. — Various Systems of Railjt Formation 



Laying Rails for a Model Railway 

arise very early. There are innumerable arrange- 
ments from which a choice may be made, and 
therefore a table is given on p. 300 of a selection of 
various kinds of rail material ; the latent sources of 






Fig. 6.— Solid Rustless Steel 
Rail and Pressed Chair 



Fig. 5.— Pressed Metal Chair 
for Hollow or Solid Rails 



Fig.4.— Tinplate or Sheet Brass Rail 

supply are, however, not ex- 
hausted by this list. 

For an indoor line of If in. 
(No. 1) gauge, such as would 
be suitable for the model ex- 
press engine described in an 
earlier chapter, the hollow 
tin or brass rail illustrated 
at G in Fig. 3 may well be 
chosen. It is the cheapest of 
what may be considered the 
proper thing, whilst the next 
best is the system using a solid 
steel rail, as shown in h (Figs. 3 and 6), with similar chairs. 

An indoor railway requires some more or less per- 
manent baseboard. The average system is laid down on 
what are virtually shelves round the walls of the attic or 

301 




Fig. 6a. — Model Spring Fish- 
plate for Solid Rails 
H and J (Fig. 3) 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



spare room devoted to the railway. The baseboards 
may, of course, be quite separate from the walls, and 
may be arranged in sections placed on trestles when it is 
required to use the line : normally, the sections are 
stacked away. However they are built up the base- 
boards should be level. Wooden sleepers may be laid 
down previous to putting on the rails and chairs, these 
sleepers being set out in accordance with and to suit the 
proposed line of railway. The baseboard should be 



ChecKrfliI c^^idcs ivhce/ 



ChecK (rail norcjutaina wheel 





Fig. 7. — No Control over 
Direction of Wheel if 
Check Rail is Absent or 
Misplaced 



lotje clears 

Fig. 8.— Wheel Controlled or 
Guided by Check Rail in 
the proper way 



marked out with four lines besides the centre line of the 
track, two outer lines indicating the edges of the sleepers, 
while the inner lines show the inside edges of the rails. 

Sleepers should, of course, be made of equal thickness, 
as otherwise the track will not be level. They can be 
stained black, with ebony stain, Stockholm tar, or similar 
colour or preservative, to make them look like the real 
thing. They should be spiked down exactly under the 
centre of the rail, so that the spikes which hold down the 
chairs do not interfere. The scheme is shown in g to k 
(Fig. 3). 

One of the photographic plates shows the general 

302 



Laying Rails for a Model Railway 



arrangement of the " frog ," portions of a pair of points 
made up in a chaired road. The frog, as indicated in 
Fig. 2 in this chapter, is that portion of the points where 
the one rail crosses the other, and the peculiar arrange- 
ment is necessary to allow the flange of the wheel to cross 
over another line of rail and at the same time to provide 
a continuous bearing for the tread of the wheel. Ob- 
viously the flange could not be expected to jump up 



K 



-BT_ 



£1 



ii_ 



Q 

Fig. 9. — Check 
and Wing Rail 
dimensions: 
BT, between 
tyres (sse Fig. 
1) ; G, gauge 
of rails ; S, 
space between 
check and 
running rails ; 
CW, check to 
wing rail 
dimension (^" 
less than BT) 




[ — Line of roils 

'j, — Line of Sleepers 



Fig, 10 



Pencil 




L 



Trammel Beam •> 



"1?" 



r?i 



rn. 



1^ 

90° 



Rvot Poinl- 

Fig. 11 



Figs. 10 and 11, — Setting out Curves and Points 
with Trammels 



over a rail, and while the rail is broken the guiding effect 
of the flange is preserved by the system of wing and 
check rails, clearly illustrated in Fig. 2 

Figs. 7 and 8 show the necessity of properly fitting up 
the wins and check rails. In the first sketch it is evident 
that a wheel will just as easily travel along the line of 
track if the check rail is either absent or is laid down 

303 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

with too great a space between it and the stock rail oppo- 
site the frog Where the check rail and wheels are correctly 
proportioned and properly fitted, the check rail acting 
on the opposite wheel to that traversing the frog retains 
the latter wheel in the straight and correct path. In all 
the small gauges the distance between the main and the 
check and wing rails is settled by the all-important " be- 
tween tyre dimensions," as shown in Fig. 9. The distance 
over check and wing rails, c w, should be y^th of an in, 
less in all the three small gauges (Nos. 0, 1 and 2) than 
the " between-tyre " dimensions given on the diagrams in 



Lorqc radius 
u-fiecfi 

1 — z:r-=r. 



^ \ 

AS SET OUT \ 



ddiAOii of 





Fig. 12.— Setting out Rails 
from Straight to Curve 



Fig. 13.— Sketch of " Rail- 
gauge " for Model Railway 
Work 



Fig. 1 (1 in., 1|| in., and Iff in. each gauge respec- 
tively). The space s (Fig. 2) is therefore half the difference 
between the dimension c w and the gauge g. 

In setting out ciu'ves and points the use of the 
" trammel " is strongly recommended. A very simple 
instrument of this kind is shown in Fig. 10. The centre 
point may be a stout needle or other stiff steel pivot, and 
to allow for scribing out the four lines (two for the rails 
and two for the edges of the sleepers) the pivot end of the 
wooden lath forming the trammel may be provided with 

304 



C/2 

< 

I— I 

< 

W 
Q 
O 




» IHT-'I IT.] 



■*'■ ,1!F^ 






Laying Rails for a Model Railway 

four holes for the pivot pin, each hole corresponding to 
the radius to be drawn. In setting out points (Fig. 11) 
the pivot point at which the trammel swings should be 
at exactly 90 deg. to the toe of the points (that is, the toe 
of the switch rail). In the case of ordinary curves which 
enter straight portions the best scheme is to provide a 
transitional entrance to the curve. In this case the curve 
is set out with the trammels as shown in Fig. 12, not 

exactly at a tangent, -Clir^-^^rr-— 

and the junction ^ - • - — -^ - 

between the curve 

made with a larger 

radius curve which 

can best be judged 

by eye. 

A " rail-gauge " 

made as shown in 

Fig. 13 is a simple ^:=::::OsC;;^--„^ z^'- 

device for setting ^^ ''^^^^ ''^jC:;: 

the rails true to fc 

gauge. It may be . „„ 

X Fig. 14.— How to Lay Frogs : A, Wmg 

made out of sheet rail space inaccurate ; B, Rails not in 

, -, , , , . continuous line ; C, Correct Spaces 

metal, tne strips ^g^^ l^ajl Ung continuous {see dotted 

being driven into ^*°® ^ ^^ 

saw cuts in a block of wood, or soldered to a metal 

base plate. 

In laying plain rails one rail should be put down 
first, tuned up by eye, and then the adjacent rails laid to 
suit, using the " rail gauge " instrument already described. 
Much -)f the final accuracy of the track is obtainable by 
sighting along the rail. Surface "wind" or "twist" 
u 305 





Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

may also be observed by looking across from rail to rail 
with the eye on a level with the top face of the rail. 

When laying down points the lining up of the frogs is 
an important feature. The diagrams a and b (Fig. 14) 
are examples of " how not to do it." The inner edges of 
the running rails should line up accurately so that by a 
straightedge, or by the eye, it can be observed that the 
line of the inner edge, against which the flange runs, is 
continuous, just as though there were no frog there at all. 
This is shown at c (Fig. 14). 

Very much more could be said on this subject, but 
the variety of materials available is large and the minor 
features of each create special difficulties and conditions. 
The broad principle has, however, been covered, and is 
unalterable whatever kind of track material is used. 



306 



BUILDING A 10-FT. FLAT-BOTTOMED 
ROWING BOAT 

There are boats and boats, and most of them are beyond 
the capabilities of the young woodworker. I know, 
however, what a fascination the building of a knockabout 
boat has for boys young and old, and I therefore feel 
obliged to include a chapter giving drawings and instruc- 
tion on making a boat of a type within the scope of any- 
body at all handy with woodworking tools. The details 
of the design here presented are due to Mr. D. Kidd. 

Fig. 1 is the sheer draught or elevation of the boat, 
Fig. 2 is the half-breadth plan, while Fig. 3 is a section 
" amidships," that is, it is a section right across the centre 
of the boat. This is an excellent knockabout boat for 
lakes and rather sluggish rivers, being of comparatively 
light weight, very stable, and, owing to its design, not 
dragging water. It tows easily, can carry a big load, and 
does not require a professional boat-builder to construct 
it ; but like all flat-bottomed boats it is apt to pound in 
choppy water. 

It must be realised that this is a small boat — 10 ft. 
by about 4 ft. — and that any load it carries needs to be 
distributed properly. One person alone would occupy 
the central seat. Two people would have an end seat each ; 

307 



Building a Rowing Boat 

three would be distributed over the three seats, while, 
when there are four people, two would be on the centre 
seat and one at each end, one of the latter doing the 
rowing. Keeping to this rule will mean an even keel. 

You may care to know that the design has been adapted 
from that of the American fisherman's dory, the system 
of construction being practically identical. Briefly, the 
side planks are secured to a stem or stempost at each end, 
the inner upright tim- 
bers added, and the 
bottom then put on. 

The first thing to 
do is to prepare the 
" moulds." As long 
as they are strong and 
of the right shape and 
dimensions it matters 
not how they are made 
up. Two " quarter 
moulds," as Fig. 4, 
and one " amidship 
mould," as Fig. 5, will 
be required ; each of 
these is 18 in. high, 
and the former is 38 J 
in. wide at the top, 
tapering to 30 in. at 
the bottom, while the 
latter is 47 in. and 38| 
in. respectively. As 
illustrated, they are 




L. 



m 




CO 

.2* 

M 

•a 

'a 
< 

I 



b 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 







Fig. 4. 




-30 i 

-Quarter Mould 



built up of thick rough stuff 6 in. wide, well nailed at 
the joints, so that any " giving " at those parts is im- 
possible. A notch 1 in. by f in. is cut out at each 
bottom corner {see dotted lines). 

The stem or stempost at each end of the boat is the 
only detail that will tax the skill of the woodworker. 
You know that the stem is the upright or nearly upright 

piece at the sharp end 
-* of a boat, into which 
the planks are secured, 
and as, in this case, 
both of the ends are 
sharp, two such pieces 
will be required. They 
are about 22 in. long, 
and after the bottom 
planking is on they 
will need to be sawn 
exactly to size. The 
section through the 
stem or stempost is as 
shown in Fig. 6, which 
is very fully dimensioned. Probably you can get a joiner to 
supply you with a piece of oak, mahogany or other hard 
wood (softer stuff is useless) cut to the section shown, as 
it will be a rather awkward job to produce such a section 
at home ; but if there is no alternative I suggest that the 
best method of going to work is to get a piece of stuff 3 in. 
square and 22 in. long, and make in it a series of cuts 
with a tenon saw or dovetail saw, as indicated by the 
dotted lines in Fig. 7. This will have the effect of pro- 

310 



k 28%"- 

Fig. 5. — Amidship Mould 





Fig. 6. — Section through Stempiece or 
Stempost and Sides 



Building a Rowing Boat 

ducing a piece of the section shown in the hatched Hnes. 
and you will then need to divide this into two with a 
hand saw on the dash-and-dot line shown. Afterwards 
clean up with 
glasspaper. Now, 
I don't recom- 
mend this job. It 
requires a great 
deal of care, pa- 
tience and skill, 
and I think that 
if you can get the 
stuff cut for you so 
much the better. 
The side plank- 
ing is only | in. 
thick, and should 
be of good qual- 
ity. This thin 
stuff will readily 
bend to the shape 
required. Four 
planks will be re- 
quired, 8^ in., 
say 9 in., wide, 
two for each side, 
the upper one be- 
ing 11 ft. 8 J in. long, and the lower one 10 ft. 6| in. long. 
They should be placed together as in Fig. 8, and the centre 
line struck as indicated at a b. Then by setting out the 
dimensions shown on the diagram and drawing a slanting 

3" 




Fi^. 7. — Suggested Method of Shaping the 
Stempost 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



line at each end right across the two boards the rake for 
the ends of the planks will be obtained, and the planks 
can then be cut on those Hnes. Both sides of the boat 
are the same, and it will be noticed that although in Fig. 1 
a curve is shown, this curve is obtained naturally as a 
result of the design and system of building and does not 
need to be imparted to the planks by sawing to a curved 
line. Indeed, it is of the utmost importance that the 



f-f/dl--"^ 




^ 



<f 



^ 



5^* 




'fp-*:W 



top and bottom edges of the planks 
be planed parallel. Vertical dotted 
lines will be noted in Fig. 8. These, 
as indicated, are 7^ in. apart, and 
they should be transferred to the 
actual stuff by means of square and 
pencil before the sides are bent. They 
indicate the positions of the upright 
timbers on the inside of the boat, 
which timbers are not added until 
after the planks are bent. 

A start may be made with the 
actual building immediately the two 
stems and four planks are ready. 
Taking one of the lower planks, place 
it on the stem in the rebate provided 
for it, as shown in plan by Fig. 6, the 
stem projecting by about f in. at the 
bottom. See that the end of the 
plank is close up in the rebate, and 
secure it with three 1-in. brass screws. 
Attach the second lower plank to the 
same stempiece on the other side. 
312 



Building a Rowing Boat 

Take the remaining stem and similarly screw it to the other 
end of one of the lower planks. Of the two planks there will 
now be three ends secured and one end free. The next 
job is to get the amidships mould in place, but before 
doing this the bottom corners must be notched out, if 
not already done, to clear the 1-in. by f-in. oak strips 
(known by the boat-builders as " chines ") which will 
run along the inside of the boat in the angle between 
sides and bottom. All three moulds need to be notched 
out in this way. Place the largest mould in position 
between the bottom planks, and see that it comes exactly 
central (on the line a b in Fig. 8). Temporarily fix it 
with a couple of screws tln:ough each plank, and you will 
then be able to bend in the free end of the plank and screw 
it to the other stempiece. 

We can now add the upper planks, first by screwing 
them to the opposite sides of the same stem, and then 
drawing the free ends together, tying tightly with a rope 
and screwing as before. The rope can be tightened to 
almost any extent by introducing a stick and giving it a 
twist in the rope. This is a dodge that will come in handy 
if you are working alone, but boat-building is a job for 
two people as a rule, and can easily provide employment 
for three. 

The vertical dot-and-dash lines in Figs. 1 and 2 in- 
dicate the positions of three moulds, one of which has 
already been inserted. The two others will now be 
dealt with. Each of them should be inserted amidships 
and then forced towards the end until it occupies its 
proper position, previously decided by exact measurement. 
The moulds are 24 in. apart, centre to centre, and need to 

313 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

be secured by rough strips nailed across their top edges 
from the amidships mould, and, in addition, by a screw 
driven in at each side through the bottom plank. There 
is a certain amount of wedge action exerted, and were it 
not for the screws the moulds would be forced upwards. 

The chines already mentioned are strips of oak or 
other hard wood which occupy the angle between the side 
planking and the bottom. In section they are 1 in. by 
f in., the 1-in. face being in contact with the sides, while 
the other face needs to be planed to an exact bevel so 
that the bottom boards will come flush and in perfect 
contact. The chines should be attached to the side planks 
with 1-in. No. 10 brass screws driven from inside and 
spaced 8 in. apart. The notches cut in the moulds allow 
of the chines being introduced at this stage of the con- 
struction. 

The upright oak timbers shown in side view in Fig. 3 
are next to be inserted, their positions, 7^ in. apart, 
having been already marked as previously instructed. 
They will be about 18 in. long, 1 in. by f in., and should 
be shaped at the top with spokeshave, chisel and glass- 
paper after they are fixed, with 1-in. galvanised nails 
3 in. apart, driven from the outside. These uprights are 
not bevelled in any way, but require to be notched at the 
foot where they pass over the chine. 

The job is beginning now to look something like a 
boat, and the attachment of the bottom planking will 
make a big difference to the appearance. The planks need 
to be of good stuff, but only those at the ends which are 
liable to get a lot of rough usage need be of oak. The best 
stuff to use is about 4| in. wide and not more than J in. 

314 



Building a Rowing Boat 



thick, and, of course, the grain will run across the bottom 
at right angles to the length of the boat. The first bottom 
plank to go on is amidships, then work towards the ends, 
and when complete trim off each stempiece, which until 
now has projected a trifle, so that it comes quite flush with 
the bottom. The planks are secured to the chines by 
means of l|-in. No. 10 brass screws, three to the end of 
each plank. 

We have now got to the point at which the moulds 
can be withdrawn, but, before doing so, it is wise to nail 
a strip across from side 
to side to the upright 
timbers near each 
mould so as to hold 
the sides of the boat 
together. Then you 
can withdraw the 
screws and remove the 
moulds. The boat is now in recognisable shape. 

There are two rubbing pieces on the boat — the keel or 
bottom rubbing piece and the side rubbing pieces round 
the gunwale, all of which are of oak and are shown in 
section in Fig. 3 The keel piece is 3 in. wide by not less 
than I in. thick, and is the exact length of the boat, it 
being cut flush with the stempieces at each end. It is 
fastened by means of |-in. brass screws, and these are 
inserted in the style shown by Fig. 9, there being four 
screws in each bottom plank, inserted close to the seams 
as shown. 

The side rubbing pieces attached to the upper edge of 
the top plank are 1| in. wide, and at amidships f in. thick ; 

315 



Fig. 9. — Method of Screwing on the 
Keel Piece 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



preferably they should taper to | in. thick at the ends, 
where they should be rounded off. They are attached 
with l|-in. brass screws which pass right through the 
plank into the upright timbers. At the extreme ends 
smaller screws fasten them to the stems. 

There must be a floor other than the actual bottom 
of the boat, but it need not extend the whole length. It 
is supported on two strips of yellow pine or similar stuff 
measuring f in. by 1 in. in cross section. These strips are 
5 ft. 7 in. long, and are laid parallel to support 6 in. widths 
< 50- -^-7-:f- - -30" ,. 



i 



nl 



III! 
Mn 



II- 



n 



liH^ 



jiit'^tl 
:M1 



Ezzi^z^^sa. 



.^^^23:^ 



Fig. 10. — Plan and Elevation of 
Floorboards of Boat 



or 7J in. widths of |-in. 
yellow pine, 18 in. long, as 
clearly shown in Figs. 3 
and 10. The latter shows 
the floorboards and sup- 
porting strips in plan and 
elevation, and gives all 
necessary dimensions. 



There is a break in the middle as shown, which can take 
a stretcher for the feet, or the edge of the flooring will 
act as the stretcher. The strips are fastened to the 
bottom planking with 1-in. brass nails inserted from 
the outside. 

To support the seats we need to provide oak risings or 
risers, 1 in. by | in., running the whole length of the boat 
from stem to stem. They should be about 7 in. below 
the top edge, and their top edges need to be planed to 
the correct bevel, as will be understood from Fig. 3. 
They are attached by a l|-in. No. 8 brass screw in each 
of the upright timbers. They support three seats, par- 
ticulars of which are given in Figs. 11 and 12 ; these are 

316 



Building a Rowing Boat 

of |-in. or 1-in. yellow pine, and about 7 in. wide, being 
secured to the risers with three l|-in. brass screws at 
each end ; of course, you will notch out the ends of the 
seats to clear the upright timbers as may be necessary. 

The actual construction is now complete, but the 
caulking and painting remain to be done. 

A practical boat-builder provides the following instruc- 
tions on caulking the seams of a boat. Caulking cotton 
or cotton wick can be obtained in 1-lb. balls. Two or 
tliree strands about 16 ft. long are made fast at one end, 
and the other end is twisted over the knee by hand, 



- \ / - 



\, 24'4- - -J 

Figs. 11 and 12. — Centre Seat and End Seat 

forming a thick thread, which, when fairly tight, is knotted 
and rolled into a ball. When caulking, the ball is gradu- 
ally unrove, and the thread is placed over and driven into 
the seam with a caulking-iron and mallet. A thin chisel 
ground to bluntness will answer the purpose of a special 
caulking-iron. Drive in the thread as far as it will go, 
care being taken not to burst the edge by too heavy a 
blow. The next thread, which, if the joints between the 
planks are a trifle V'd, may be a little thicker, is driven 
on to this first thread, and so on until the seam is filled to 
about I in. of the outside of the plank ; this space is left 
for a stopping made of white-lead putty. Planking seams 
are not usually filled with marine glue, as is done to the 
deck seams of sea-going boats. If the craft is to be 

317 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

varnished, the putty or stopping is coloured to suit the 
planking. Wide seams are to be avoided, as the caulking 
and stopping have a tendency to come out when the 
planking swells. 

As regards the painting for the outside, first coat 
knots with shellac knotting (common shellac varnish), and 
when this is dry give from two to four coats of reliable 
paint. It is not usual to paint the rubbing piece at 
the gunwale, which should be treated exactly the same as 
the inside and as follows : Coat the knots as before and 
then give two coats of boiled linseed oil, allowing a day or 
two between them for drying, and finish with a good 
flowing coat of good quality oil varnish. 

Necessary fittings include two pairs of galvanised- 
iron rowlocks with side plates, which can be bought ready 
for attachment. It is desirable to have a ring bolt attached 
to the stem as shown in Fig. 1, and you will, of course, 
need a pair of oars and a l|-in. rope painter. 



318 



A MODEL AEROPLANE THAT FLIES 

I FEAR that when you look at the illustration given on 
page 321 you will be tempted to think that such a model 
is not worth making. It lacks the realism of some of 
those beautiful structures of canvas and timber which 
are sold at high prices in the toy shops, but it does one 
thing that very few of those structures can do — it can 
fly. It has been designed especially for beginners by 
Mr. F. J. Camm, and he guarantees that flights of well 
over a quarter of a mile are easily obtainable with it. 
It is built for flying and not for looking at. Fig. 1 is a 
plan of the aeroplane showing the main spar running 
down the centre strengthened by a bracing with outrigger. 

Its technical description is a twin-screw monoplane, 
propeller or canard type, hand-launched ; type formula, 
" 1 — 1 — P2." At the front of the machine is an elevator 
and at the rear two propellers, while well to the rear, but 
adjustable as to position, is the main plane. 

We wiU talk about the main spar first : it is a piece of 
straight-grained birch J in. wide, ^ in. deep, and 48 1 in. 
long, tapered at the ends to about ^ in. square. At the 
rear end at right angles to the main spar is a propeller 
bar, for which the most suitable wood is spruce ^ in. wide, 
f in. deep, and 12| in. long. In the end of the main spar 
is 4B, slot to receive the bar, which is held in position by 

319 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

pinning and gluing. Fig. 2 shows how the propeller bar 
is fastened to the main spar. From each end of the former 
is a stay, jointed, as shown in Fig. 3, by notching and 
pinning ; and the other end of each stay is connected to 
the main spar at 6 in. from the end {see Fig. 4). A little 
hole or mortice is cut in the spar to receive tenons cut on 
the ends of the stays, the tenons abutting in the centre of 
the mortice as indicated in Fig. 5. The joints may be 
bound with strong silk or other thread to strengthen them. 
A suitable binding material is three-cord carpet thread. 

At each end of the propeller bar is bound on a little 
bearing of sheet brass, which receives a wire axle con- 
nected to the propeller. Each axle is driven by an elastic 
motor. The little bearings are cut from scraps of No. 20- 
gauge brass ('036 in. thick), and in each of them is drilled 
a hole to allow the propeller shaft to turn quite freely. 
This hole is indicated in Fig. 6 (which shows the bearing 
bound to one end of the propeller bar), and should take a 
shaft of No. 18 gauge, that is, '048 in. thick. It will be 
noted that the bearings project from the ends of the bars 
and are slightly bent so that they come at exactly right 
angles to the skeins of rubber which drive the propellers ; 
otherwise the propellers will rub on the bearings and 
power will be lost. 

The propellers are 12 in. long and are cut from pieces 
of white wood 1| in. wide by f in. thick. The general 
shapes of propellers are given in one of the photographic 
plates, and it will be understood that one propeller must 
be right-handed and the other left-handed, and that they 
will revolve in different directions. There should be no 
difficulty in shaping them with a good sharp penknife 

320 



BUILDING MODEL AEROPLANES 




^H 




1 


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1 


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Carved 


Propellers 


for 


Model 


A 


eroplane 




Model of the Historical Wright Biplane 




Built-up Propellers for Model Aeroplane 











C3 


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en 


Qu 




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w — 




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<u 








(M 


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321 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

whittling them away until a nice smooth outline and an 
unbroken curve have been obtained. A tiny hole is 
bored through them centrally to take a wire shaft which 
should pass through them, and its end be bent flat so that 
binding with thread will hold the propeller to the shaft ; 
or, preferably, the shafts should be soldered to tin straps, 
as in Fig. 7. The shaft from propeller to elastic is 4 in. 
or 5 in. long, and ends in a hook to take the rubber 
skeins. At the other end of the machine a double hook 
is bound to the nose of the main spar to receive the 
front ends of the skeins, as made clear in Fig. 1. 

Fig. 7 shows a pair of bent-wood propellers that would 
be suitable. They are pieces of jV in. birch, 12 in. long 
and 1^ in. wide, and may easily be softened for bending 
by holding them in the steam from a vigorously boiling 
kettle. Each propeller has a pitch of about 37*5 in. ; 
in other words, each blade tip makes an angle with the 
spindle of 45°. Thin tin is wrapped round the centres of 
the propellers so that the shafts can be soldered on. 

The spar is considerably strengthened by a wire 
bracing and outrigger, the latter passing through it, as 
shown in the detail (Fig. 8), and consisting of a piece of 
hard-drawn brass wire. A tiny hole is bored to receive 
it, the wire inserted, bent on both sides of the spar as 
indicated, and then tightly bound with thread. Fig. 9 
shows it more clearly. From spar to the end of each arm 
measures 2 in., and at each end is a small eye. The fine 
bracing wire is attached to the spar at the points indicated 
in Fig. 1 by means of small hooks of No. 20-gauge wire 
bound on, and the bracing wire will require some 
amount of adjustment, as there must be exactly the 

322 



A Model Aeroplane that Flies 

same tension on each side of the spar, otherwise warping 
is certain. 

The elevator must be so made and fitted that its in- 
clination can be altered to control more or less the height 
attained by the machine when in flight. Its framework is 
a rectangle, 15 in. long and about 3 in. wide, with three 




Fig. 5. — Joint of Stay 
with Main Spar 



Fig. 6. — Propeller Bearing 
Bound to Bar 




Fig. 7. — Pair of Bent-wood Propellers 



cross pieces to strengthen it, made of No. 18-gauge ('048 
in. thick) wire. In making this rectangle, the joints need 
to be bound with fine tying wire and soldered. The 
elevator's central rib is longer than the others and projects 
forward and downwards, as shown in the side-view detail 
A, Fig. 1. The wire passes through a fine hole made in 
the main spar, the hole being bored in such a way that 
the wire binds in it with sufficient friction to retain the 
elevator at any angle to which it may be set, at the sam^ 

323 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

time allowing of its swivelling should it strike any object 
in the course of its flight. I will deal with the covering of 
the elevator plane later. 

The main plane has a frame roughly rectangular in 
form, about 30 in. long at the back edge, and 26| in. at 
the front edge. The least width is 5 in., and the width 
along the main spar in the centre is 5f in. The framework 
is built up not with wire, but with birch wood J in. by 





'■nAiNaR*p 



Fig. 8 Fig. 9 

Figs. 8 and 9. — Outrigger Passing through and Bound to Spar 

■^ in. in cross section. Fig. 1 shows that the spar at the 
back, known as the trailing spar, is curved. The wood 
can easily be bent in the steam from a kettle, or after 
soaking for a few moments in hot water, or after wrapping 
in cloths that have been lightly wrung out in very hot 
water. There are five ribs as shown in Fig. 1, and they 
are attached to the frame by pinning and gluing, the pins 
being clinched on the underside. You will note that the 
central rib is longer than the others, and slightly projects 
over both the spars to afford means of securing the main 
plane to the main spar. These means are very simple, 
consisting simply of two little strips of thin tin which 
slide tightly along the spar and clip the projecting ends 
of rib in place {see Figs. 10 and 11). The strips are made by 
bending up small pieces of thin tin, lapping the ends, and 
soldering. To shift the main plane fore or aft is thus 

324 



A Model Aeroplane that Flies 

an easy matter. The main planes have diagonal wing 
bracing secured as in Fig. 12, and this bracing is put under 
such tension that there is what is known as a dihedral 
angle of 1| in. ; in other words, the wing tips of the 
main plane are 1| in. above the spar {see Fig. 13). 

The motor that propels the aeroplane consists of 
sixteen strands of J-in. strip rubber, eight to each pro- 
peller, and they should be lubricated with soft soap. 




_ iJedion 

Fig. n 

Figs. 10 and U. —Adjustable Attachment of Main Plane to Spar ; 
A, Pattern for Clip 

All the bindings on the machine should be coated with 
weak glue or with varnish to strengthen the work. 

Mr. W. G. Smith, a very successful builder of 
aeroplane models, contributed to Work the following 
explanation of his simple method of forming and covering 
the planes. I reproduce it here because it is essentially 
practical, and one easily followed by the boy builder. 
" For the planes of model aeroplanes, steel wire offers 
exceptional advantages, as it is practically unbreakable, 
and can be bent to any desired shape. Another advantage 
is that it offers a minimum resistance when travelling 
through the air. First obtain a piece of wood about 
I in. thick and slightly larger than the plane to be made, 

325 




Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

and draw on it a plan of the plane, as in Fig. 14. For 
example, it will be assumed that a plane 30 in. span and 
5 in. wide, having four ribs, is to be made. No. 17 s.w.g. 
steel wire will be used, and will need to be straightened. 
Then lay the wire over the plane, beginning at a (Fig. 14), 
and passing round to b. As the wire is bent to the shape 
of the plane, it must be fastened down to the board by 
means of small staples. Then cut four pieces of wire 
for the ribs c, d, e, and r, allowing | in. each end for 



Crot''} Tn'eadb _ 



Fig. 13 Fig. 12 

Figs. 12 and 13. — Wing Bracing to Give Dihedral Angle 

turning at right angles as in Fig. 14. The framework is 
now ready for soldering together. The wire and soldering 
bit must be perfectly clean. Apply a little ' killed spirits ' 
to the parts to be soldered, and then place a piece of solder 
in position and touch with the hot bit. Care must be 
taken to see that the wires lie close together. When the 
plane is soldered together, remove all the staples and 
clean up all the joints with a file. The joints must be 
bound round tightly with clean fine iron wire, the plane 
fastened to the board again, and all the wired joints 
re-soldered. Then the plane is once more removed from 
the board, straightened, the dihedral angle given, and 
the ribs bent to the desired camber. 

" For covering the planes, it is far better to purchase 
a waterproof silk especially manufactured for the purpose. 
It weighs about 1| oz. per square yard. When cutting, 
about I in. must be allowed for turning over for fastening. 

326 



A Model Aeroplane that Flies 

At the curved ends of the plane, slits about | in. apart 
must be cut in the edge, as shown in Fig. 15. Apply a 
thin coating of seccotine to the silk to be turned back, 
and allow sufficient time for it to get ' tacky.' Then 
stick over the plane, beginning at a (Fig. 15) and finishing 
at B. Allow time for the seccotine to set, and fasten the 
opposite end in the same manner. Care must be taken 
to stretch the silk tightly, so that it is free from wrinkles. 
Then fasten first one side of the plane and lastly the 
other. Another method of covering steel-wire planes 




Fig. 14, — Making Frame for Main Plane 

A 



Fig. 15. — Covering Frame of Main Plane 

is to sew the silk on the framework. The silk must be 
cut about I in. larger than the framework, and the edges 
hemmed with a sewing machine. The silk cover when 
hemmed should be slightly smaller than the framework. 
First sew the silk roughly into position, and then carefully 
sew it, beginning at one end, then the other end, and 
lastly the sides. The stitches, I in. apart, should first be 
passed through the silk, and then round the wire. 

The machine should be tried and any necessary 
adjustments made. Any tendency to dive should be 
corrected by moving the main plane forward. 

327 



NAILS AND SCREWS 



Some amount of care and common sense is necessary 
in using nails, which must be started in the way in 
which they are to go. For all rough carpentry the 
French or wire nail, which is made in a variety of sizes, 
will be found good enough, but I often prefer the oval 
steel brad, which is made in a range of sizes, and has to be 
driven more carefully than the French nail as it is more 
liable to bend. Panel pins, which are fine wire nails of 

special manufacture, 
are useful for good 
work and in the repair 
of furniture where the 
use of thicker nails 
would probably mean 
splitting the wood. 
Before driving in a nail take a moment to consider the 
direction of the force which the nail will have to resist. 
Say, for example, that Fig. 1 represents part of the 
bottom of the box ; the weight inside the box will be 
pushing down on the boards, and therefore if the nails are 
driven at exact right angles they will be loosened sooner 
or later, whereas if they are driven slightly on the slant, 
and at an opposite slant as illustrated, a dovetail effect 
is produced. This is a point worth remembering. 

328 




—Nails Inclined to give 
Dovetail EflFect 



Nails and Screws 



A frequent trouble in nailing is the splitting of the 
work. Thoughtlessness is often a big factor, and you 
should never insert nails in such a way that their com- 
bined effect is to split the board along one line of the grain. 
Wherever possible, zigzag the nails, so that they cannot 
help each other to split the wood. A little nail-set, which 
is a cheap tool, is worth having, as with it the nails can be 
driven right into the wood without damaging the work — 
and hammer marks on finished 
woodwork do not look well. 
When withdrawing nails do 
not forget to introduce a bit 
of scrap wood or something 
of the sort under the pincers 
so that in levering out the 
nail the surface of the work 
itself is not marked. 

The screw is, of course, a 
stronger method of fixing than the nail. It is actually 
a form of cramp, and one frequently sees it inserted in a 
very careless manner. In screwing boards together the 
screw should be a loose fit in the board nearest the head, 
and a tight fit in the other one ; thus you gain the effect 
of squeezing or cramping the outer board between the 
head of the screw and the board underneath. Fig. 2 
shows what I mean. A touch of fat or oil on the screw 
helps the insertion and makes withdrawal easier at a 
later date. 




Fig. 2. — Diagram showing 
Clamping Action of 
Screw 



329 



SOME USEFUL JOBS ABOUT THE HOUSE 

Erecting a Shelf. — One of the most useful jobs about 
the house fallmg to the lot of the boy mechanic is the 
putting up of a shelf. Now, in the case of a recess in your 
den or bedroom in which you may wish to erect a book- 
shelf, the simplest method is to fix wooden bearers, one 
on each end wall, and support the shelf on them. There 
is a right way and a sadly wrong way of attaching a 
bearer to a wall. Most people have tried the wrong one 
and have found that by hammering big nails through the 
wooden bearer into the wall they manage without any diffi- 
culty to make a mess of the wall, or to arrive at a hard spot 
in a brick which the nail cannot penetrate. There is no 
natural hold for a nail in either brick or mortar, and often- 
times a bearer which is simply nailed to a wall will come 
down when the weight of a heavy bookshelf rests upon 
it. The right way is to " plug " the wall, and this is done 
by drilling two or more holes | in. to f in. in diameter 
by means of an old chisel ; special tools for the purpose 
can be bought {see Figs. 1 to 5), but I have always 
made do with a blunt wood chisel that was of no further 
use for its original purpose. Cut the hole about 3 in. 
deep, shape a plug of hard wood that will make a tight fit 
in it, and drive it in with a hammer. Two such plugs as 
this, 1 in. to 1| in. from the respective ends of the bearer, 

330 



Some Useful Jobs about the House 

will support a great weight. Select the screws you are 
going to use and bore holes through the bearer to take 
them easily. With a bradawl make a small hole in each 




Fig. 2.- 

Cutting 
Edge of 
Hollow 
Chisel 




Fig. I.— Hollow 
Chisel f o r 
Plugging 
Walls 



Fig. 3 Fig. 4 

Figs. 3 and 4. — Cruciform 
Chisel ior Plugging 
Walls 




Fig. 5.— Flat 
Chisel for 

Fig. 6. — Ensuring Tidiness : Paper Pinned up Plugging 

to catch Plaster, etc., when Plugging a Wall Walls 



of the plugs, and on driving the screws home you will get 
a very tight attachment. Be as neat and tidy as you 
can {see Fig. 6). 

An excellent way of proceeding is to prepare the bearers 

33^ 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

and bore the two or three screw holes that will be required. 
Place the bearer in position on the wall, and mark through 
the end screw hole with a bradawl. Remove, plug the 
wall as before explained, and attach the bearer loosely 
with a screw. Then by means of a spirit level used as in 
Fig. 7 you can get the bearer truly horizontal, and with a 
bradawl can mark the positions of the other plug or plugs. 

The erection of one bearer should be finished before 
starting on the other, particularly so if you are in doubt 
as to whether you can get your shelf horizontal. Support 
the shelf on the bearer already fixed, place the bearer 
under the other end, and raise the shelf until the spirit- 
level indicates that the shelf is horizontal lengthwise ; 
then mark through the screw holes with a bradawl and 
plug the wall for the second bearer. 

Sometimes a recess will not have its end walls at a right 
angle with the back wall, and it will be necessary to adopt 
some means of transferring the angle to the shelf so that 
it can be sawn to shape. Fig. 8 shows how this can be 
done with an ordinary folding rule that is fairly stiff in 
the joint. Take the angle of the wall with the rule and 
transfer the latter to the board so that the part a comes 
flush with the back edge, and the part b lies over the front 
corner of the board. Then with a chisel or sharp point 
mark the angle line and afterwards cut to shape with 
the saw. The erection of the bearers in a case of this sort 
is exactly the same as before, but it makes a neater job 
if their front ends are sawn or chiselled off to be in the 
same vertical plane as the front edge of the shelf. 

When erecting a shelf on the face of a wall where there 
is no recess, bearers are out of the question, and instead 

332 



Some Useful Jobs about the House 

wood or iron brackets must be used. The professional 
carpenter favours the first, but the boy mechanic saves 
himself a great deal of labour by using iron brackets, 
which can be bought quite cheaply. Do not forget that 
to make a proper job you will need to plug the walls as 
already described. Possibly you will find that the screw 
holes in the brackets are just -opposite joins between the 
bricks, and if so, an amount of hard work in drilling will 




Fig. 7.— Getting Shelf Bearer 
Horizontal 

be saved, it being, of course, much easier to plug a joint 
than a solid brick. Do not forget, either, that a shelf 
that is not quite horizontal is an offence to a trained eye ; 
it can easily be made horizontal by means of a spirit level, 
and I have even known a glass of water used as a testing 
device. Failing these, get somebody to hold the second 
bracket, the first having been fixed, and get back a good 
distance from the wall so that your eye may decide whether 
the shelf is level. 

333 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

In many houses, walls in the upstairs rooms are not 
what they seem ; they look so solid, but are actually 
only wooden partitions covered with lath and plaster. It 
is no use plugging these. Instead, find out by tapping 
with your knuckles where the upright timbers of the par- 
tition come. Your ear will soon tell you the difference 
between the hollow partition and the solid timber. Then 
you can attach your brackets or bearers with long screws 
right through the lath and plaster into the timbers. 

Sometimes, to minimise the number of wall plugs, 
shelves and wooden brackets are hung on what are known 
as "glass plates" or hangers, these being metal plates in 
which there are generally two screw holes for attachment 
to the article, the top hole being for the screw which holds 
the plate to the wall or wall plug. 

It very often happens that the screw holes in iron 
brackets, glass plates, etc., are slightly too small for the 
screws which you happen to have, but there will be no 
difficulty in slightly enlarging them with the tang or rat- 
tail of a file. 

By the way, in choosing iron brackets you should give 
preference to those that are of triangular form rather than 
to those which are simply pieces of iron bent to L-shape. 

Cleaning Locks and Renewing Lock Springs. — I have 
always taken a great deal of interest in locks, and I expect 
that you have enjoyed the task of taking one carefully 
to pieces, noticing the position and the function of each 
part before you removed it, and doing your best to under- 
stand how the lock works. I took to pieces a very com- 
plicated lever lock some time ago, and was almost afraid 
of it when I unscrewed the plate and saw the amount of 

334 



Some Useful Jobs about the House 

mechanism in it ; but I proceeded carefully, scratching a 
tiny number on each plate as I removed it so that I could 
be certain of replacing it in exactly the right order. 1 
made a mental note of the position of every part of the 
contrivance, and did not remove a single piece until I 
was quite certain that I should know where it belonged 
when the time came to put it back again. The lock 
had probably not been opened for twenty-five years ; 
it was dry and contained a quantity of rusty powder, 
together with a quantity of old solid oil. The powder and 
the dry oil had caused the lock to work very stiffly, and 
I took it apart to see whether I could remedy matters. 
Having taken all the precautions named, I put the very 
dirty parts — those covered with the congealed oil — into 
some boiling water containing a handful of washing soda, 
and left them there a couple of hours. Then I passed 
them through some clean boiling water, dried them, and 
rubbed them up with a rag and some knife polish. I 
cleaned out the case of the lock and carefully reassembled 
all the parts in the order in which I had originally found 
them. As I put the brass levers in place, I tested them 
with the key to make certain I was not in error. I lubri- 
cated all the surfaces that rubbed on one another, tried the 
action several times to see if everything was right, and put 
it back in its place on the door. This was a very heavy 
rim lock, the sort that has an iron or steel box or case 
visible on the inside of the door, and which could be very 
easily removed by taking out a few screws in addition to 
withdrawing the handle stem after removing a tiny set 
screw in the handle. 

Locks that are hidden in the woodwork of the door are 

335 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

known as mortice locks, and they are more trouble to 
remove ; there are generally one or more, frequently two, 
plates on the edge of the door which have to be unscrewed, 
but the lock will not move until the handle has been 
taken out. 

I cannot go fully into the mechanism of locks in this 
chapter, as the subject is a very large one, and I will 
content myself with just one more hint. A very common 
trouble in door locks is the failure of the latch to work 
properly. The handle is turned, the latch recedes into 
the lock, and when the handle is released it fails to make 
its appearance ; thus the door does not latch when it is 
slammed, and soon gives annoyance. There is one cause 
for this — the lock spring is broken. This spring may be 
of any one of a score of different shapes and sizes. It is 
made of thin steel, and as this metal is very susceptible to 
the effects of moisture, it does not take many years for the 
spring to rust through, or the spring may break simply as 
the result of wear. I took to pieces a lock the other day 
suffering from a broken spring, and when I unscrewed 
the plate the two parts of the spring fell out. You must 
know that there is a great variety in locks and hundreds 
of different patterns, and I confess that at first I did not 
recognise how the spring acted ; I found out, though, in 
a very simple way, and that was by taking off another 
lock of the self-same pattern, very carefully removing the 
plate, and studying the internal anatomy. 

You can buy lock springs at about one penny each from 
any ironmonger, and there is no need why, if you are 
prepared to exercise a little thought and patience, you 
should not keep in order all the door locks jn your house. 

336 



Some Useful Jobs about the House 

Putting: a Washer in a Water Tap. — In every house- 
hold at some time or other a water tap gets leaky, and 
however hard the handle may be screwed down there will 
be a constant stream of water from it. The trouble is 
that the constant pressure of the water or the screwing- 
down of the tap has worn away the leather or compo- 
sition washer, and this requires to be renewed — a very 
simple job indeed, but one which is very puzzling to 
some people. First of all get one or two new washers ; 
for ordinary cold-water taps, these washers may be of 
leather or rubber, but for hot-water taps the best kind is 
made of red vulcanised fibre. The ironmonger stocks all 
sizes, and will guide you in the matter. 

It is best, wherever possible, to turn off the water at 
the stopcock, but this sometimes is inconvenient, and 
frequently also the tap is fed by a pipe from a big cistern, 
and the cutting-off of the water could not be effective till 
the cistern were empty. Sometimes a broom handle or a 
big cork can be used for stopping the outlet from the 
cistern, but occasionally it happens that the renewal of 
the washer must take place with the water running until 
the new washer is in place. Greater care is then necessary, 
especially if the tap is directly connected to the main 
water supply, in which case the pressure is so great that 
on removing the top part of the tap there will be a fountain 
of water that may reach the ceiling. If the water must 
run all the while, get somebody to hold a pail upside down 
immediately over the tap, and be prepared yourself for 
an occasional squirt of water over you ; do not unscrew the 
tap at c (Fig. 9) or you will be flooded. 

With a spanner, such as an adjustable cycle spanner, 
w 337 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



unscrew the top part (above b), which will bring with it 
the threaded stem or plunger, in the bottom of which is a 
jumper {see Fig. 10) covered with the old washer. The 
method of getting off the washer will be self-evident, I 
expect, but it varies with the kind of tap. Sometimes a 
little nut or screw has to be removed, but in any case 
you will find no difficulty here. Put on the new washer, 
which will, of course, be the same size as the brass plate, 
and before replacing the top part of the tap loosen the 





Fig. 9. — Water Tap (Screw-down 
Bib Cock) 



Lc(it}ltr LOo^hcr 



Fig. 10. — Jumper and 
Washer of Tap 



bush or gland a which screws into the body of the tap 
just against the handle. In the meantime, if the water is 
running, your assistant must have kept the pail in position 
all the time so as to throw the water down into the sink. 

You now push the stem with its new washer into 
place. This may require a little force, and occasionally a 
tap or two with the hammer will help matters considerably. 
Then tighten up with the spanner and adjust the brass 
bush A, so that you get a nice easy action. 

If the new washer does not wholly cure the trouble it 

338 



Some Useful Jobs about the House 

will be found that the metal surface on which the new 
washer presses down has become roughened or pitted 
by the water action, and those surfaces will need to be 
ground, which is a job not usually undertaken at home, 
but a special tool for the purpose is obtainable. I 
suggest you can often improve a bad seating by dipping 
the end of a piece of wood in oil and coarse emery and 
then revolving it between your hands inside the tap. 

Loosening a Stuck Window Sash. — You are fairly cer- 
tain to be called on to loosen a window that has become 
stuck, the cause of the trouble possibly being the care- 
lessness of a painter in allowing one sash to become 
cemented by the paint to the other sash or to the window 
framing. I strongly recommend you not to use screw- 
drivers or chisels in your attempt to loosen the frames. It 
is almost impossible to use edge tools for this purpose 
without marking the paint, and frequently their use will 
give no good result. I find there is one method which 
seldom fails. I place two or three old thick magazines 
on the woodwork of the stuck frame and give a very 
sharp, quick blow with a hammer. The paper spreads 
the blow and prevents any damage to the paint, and, as 
a rule, the blow breaks the paint contact instantly ; if 
not, the blow can be repeated. Sometimes it may be 
necessary to lay a block of wood on the bottom rail of 
the sash and give a smart blow on that, of course taking 
care and using all your skill to prevent damaging the glass 
or frame. It is a very simple remedy, which is far to be 
preferred to the use of sharp tools. 



339 



A WORD ON WOOD 



Packing cases provide a great deal of useful material for 
rough carpentry. They should be carefully taken to 
pieces, preferably by leverage with an old strong screw- 
driver, and the nails removed one by one, straightened 
and put aside for use later. Tea chests yield three-ply 

wood, which is excellent stuff, 
consisting of three thin pieces 
of wood glued and pressed 
together, the grain of the 
middle one being at right angles 
to that of the outside pieces. 
Nowadays, wood can be bought 
already planed and cut to the 
exact length required, and this 
is a great advantage. It is often 
of interest to know in which 
direction a board is liable to 
shrink or warp, and this can 
Fig. 1.— How Boards and Pcbts generally be determined by 

Shrink and Warp ,, t ^- i? i.i. i 

the direction oi the annual 
rings, which show so distinctly in the end grain. Take 
for example, a tree trunk cut into four slices a b c b {se 
Fig. 1, above), and into two square posts e f. As the 
wood dries, the rings get shorter, with the result that the 

34^ 




A Word on Wood 

surface of the wood which is farther from the heart of the 
tree is inclined to go hollow as shown, whereas a board or 
slice cut right through the centre gets round and not 
hollow on both its faces. Square pieces tend to become 
of a diamond shape, and wherever in special cases it is 
desirable that the squareness should be maintained they 
need to be cut so that the end grain shows as in G h. 

In buying small quantities of wood the material is sold 
by the square foot, or by the foot run, the price in the 




Fig, 2. — How a Log may^SpIit in Drying 

first case being based upon 1 in. of thickness ; thus per 
foot run 6 in. wide and 2 in. thick would be the equivalent 
of 1 sq. ft. at 1 in. thick. / 

Shrinkage in a felled tree trunk often results in splitting, 
as shown in Fig. 2. 

The woods in general use number some hundreds (as 
a matter of fact, I give particulars of over three hundred 
of them in " The Complete Woodworker," a volume in 

341 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

Cassell's Handcraft Library, which the boy mechanic who 
has mastered the instruction given in the present book 
would do well to get). I can afford space for mention of 
just a few of the best known and most useful. 

Ash is close-grained, hard and tough. Beech, another 
excellent wood, is also of close grain : the former is of a 
light brown colour, and the latter yellowish-red. Elm is 
of a yellowish brown, hard and durable. Larch, yellowish 
to reddish brown, straight grained and tough. Mahogany 
varies considerably, the best being heavy, hard, close 
grained, and excellent in most ways. Maple, reddish 
white or reddish brown, is tough, hard and fine of grain. 
Oak, generally light brown and very characteristic in its 
markings, is very strong, tough, and hard. Pine, light, 
durable and easily worked, is among the cheapest class of 
wood for general use. Spruce, another easily worked 
wood, is of straight and even grain. Teak, one of the 
most durable woods known, is of a brownish red colour. 
Walnut is close grained, durable, of a brownish colour and 
beautiful in appearance. 



34^ 



A PRACTICAL HOME-MADE TELEPHONE 

By B. Clements-Henry 

For some years previous to 1914 the constructive instinct 
and ability inherent in many of us was ahnost snuffed 
out because i..w>:,t of the mechanical and electrical things 
we wished to possess were so cheap that they could be 
bought ready made. Often the prices quoted were actually 
below the cost to us of the raw materials, and so we came 
to think that constructive hobbies were a bit futile. 
Lots of those cheap things were amazingly good, but some 
were exasperatingly bad, and the bulk indifferent. Still, 
we bought the stuff, learned nothing from it, and clean 
missed all that solid satisfaction that lives for ever in 
building and contriving and creating. 

Take the ready-made cheap telephone, for instance. 
How long did it take to get fed up with ringing and asking 
" are you there ? " Was it really worth the outlay of 
15s. to 45s. ? Frankly, no. Why ? Because our pur- 
chase locked us out from all the subtle mysteries of an 
ever-wonderful instrument (simple though it be), and we 
had been robbed of all the j oy of its making. If it failed to 
act we discovered that we could not put it right. If it 
acted perfectly, we took the whole thing for granted and 
soon became bored. But to build up that same installation 
oneself in the face of difficulties from the homeliest of 

343 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

raw materials, and at last to have it (in literal fact) 
voicing our triumph in our eager-listening ears — ah, 
that is a very different matter ! 

The writer has been asked to simplify everything in 
the making of a home telephone down to an irreducible 
minimum ; and he will do his best ; but he must assume 
that the boy mechanic knows by this time something of 
the use of tools. Readers who are better equipped than 
most with tools and the skill to use them can improve on 
primitive methods here and there. The whole design is 
original to this book, and was thought out especially 
for it with a view of reducing the difficulties of construc- 
tion to the utmost, yet to retain every essential detail 
that goes to make up a reliable and efficient installation 
capable of calling up, speaking and hearing as well as 
any first-class telephonic apparatus can. Some of the 
parts have been practically re-invented to attain this 
end, and the least experienced boy mechanic who cares to 
follow these instructions to the letter can be definitely and 
confidently assured of the complete success of his under- 
taking. 

Through want of space the theory of the telephone 
cannot be discussed here, but those who wish to master 
its beautiful simplicities can do so by an hour's study of 
Cassell's "Work" handbook on the subject. In the 
present chapter points of difficulty or of importance will 
be emphasised (without explanation) by the use of italics. 
Where these appear the reader is asked to sharpen his 
wits and exercise special care, adhering closely to the 
instructions — blindly so, if need be ; and rest assured 
that they will not " let him down." 

344 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

This installation is a " real " one in every respect. 
It consists of two series-type wall-sets having electric 
call-bells, hand-combination telephones slung on auto- 
matic hook-switches, calling press-buttons and batteries 
complete. It will speak clearly and distinctly over 150 
yards of No. 20 gauge line wire, and farther if thicker line 
is used. 

The Kand-Combination Telephone. — The hand-com- 
bination (of transmitter and receiver in one) is familiar to 
most people, and even in its practical home-made form, 
shown in Figs, 1, 2 and 3, it will be easily recognisable. 
This being far the most complicated part should be tackled 
first, and it would be best to build the necessary pair (one 
for each station) concurrently. 

Fig. 1 shows the front of the instrument — the receiver 
above and the transmitter below. Fig. 2 is a side half- 
section showing all the working parts ; and Figs. 3 is the 
back view, in which the wiring connection is seen pro- 
ceeding from the left-hand terminal screw (at the bottom) 
to the left bobbin of the receiver, through its winding and 
that of the right bobbin and back to the metal cover of 
the transmitter. The other terminal screw is wired direct 
to the carbon block in the centre of the transmitter. 
The several wire ends appear also in the side section 
(Fig. 2). 

The woodwork must first be made ; it consists of three 
parts ; the body A and the two discs b and c, which are 
glued to the face of the body. Mahogany, teak and 
walnut are the most suitable woods ; beech and oak will 
serve admirably, but are harder to work; deal is scarcely 
good enough. 

345 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

The body a is 9 in. long over all, by about 2| in. wide 
across the circular ends; the exact size of these will 
depend on the diameter of the two tinplate box-lids used 
as covers for the transmitter and receiver [see Figs. 1 and 
2). Tooth-powder or boot-polish tins vary in size, but 
the lids should be selected of not less than 2| in. and not 
more than 2| in. in diameter, the former size being here 
illustrated. The wood should be exactly | in. thick when 
planed up and glasspapered smooth and flat. 

First cut out the body a with a keyhole saw, and 
shape it by careful paring with the chisel and by glass- 
papering. The midway handle part may be | in, to 1 in. 
wide, and should be rounded off neatly to form a con- 
venient grip, as shown, the disc ends being finished quite 
flat. The discs themselves, b and c, are of the same | in. 
wood; they must be sawn out, pared and glasspapered 
to make a close and accurate fit for the tinplate box-lids. 
The transmitter disc (below) has a 1-in. diameter centre- 
bit hole bored through its centre, and the receiver disc 
(above) has two y|-in. or |-in. holes carried through it, 
side by side, their centres being spaced a shade more than 
f in. apart, say |i in., which will cause the holes to cut 
into one another. 

If preferred, all these holes can be bored in the board 
before cutting out the discs therefrom, but the better way 
will be to attach the finished blank discs to the body and 
bore them afterwards. A good, durable joint can be 
made with glue alone, applying it rather thin and very 
hot, the discs being quickly and firmly pressed and rubbed 
into close contact with the body, and then put aside under 
heavy pressure to set for twelve hours ; a copying-press 

346 




Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 



Fig. 3 



Figs. 1, 2 and 3. — Front Elevation, Vertical Section and Back Elevation 
of Home-made Hand-combination Telephone. (Scale, 6 in. = 1 ft.) 



347 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

or a linen-press can be used, or failing these the body may- 
be laid on a flat surface, discs downward, and weights 
piled on its ends. If preferred, three equally spaced 
|-in. brass wood-screws can be used additionally to the 
glue ; but care must be taken to place these where 
they will not interfere with fittings to be subsequently 
attached, as shown in the illustrations. 

After the glue has thoroughly set, the holes must be 
bored ; if any difficulty is anticipated in making them 
neatly and accurately, any working carpenter will bore 
them for a trifle. The 1-in. hole at the transmitter end 
goes through the disc c only, but the two ^-in. holes at the 
receiver end pass right through b and the body a also. 
This being done, drill holes for and fit the large screw-eye 
seen at the top and the small one at the bottom ; then 
remove them again, temporarily. Fit also the two tin- 
box lids, finally, to the discs, remove them, glasspaper 
the woodwork all over, and fill the grain thoroughly with 
a good body of french polish applied with a brush. 

The receiver-magnet m is one of the ordinary horseshoe 
type obtainable at toyshops ; the 2 in. size is chosen for 
illustration, but it may be larger if the woodwork is 
adapted to suit. It is important that its magnetism be 
strong, and the two magnets required should be care- 
fully selected from a batch ; they should easily support 
at least four times their own weight suspended from the 
keeper. The poles of each magnet must be fitted with a 
stout sheet-brass clip shown at l (Figs. 2 and 3), and on an 
enlarged scale in Fig. 4. The brass may be ^ in. thick 
or a trifle less, by about | in. wide and If in. long. Mark 
the points at which the ends are to be bent by laying the 

348 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

magnet-poles upon the brass, and lightly scribing a line 
outside each limb. Then bend at right angles in a vice 
or pair of strong pincers and finish the hooked ends by 
beating down over a strip of flat metal of similar sub- 
stance to the magnet. (Do not beat the brass on the 
magnet itself, because the steel is hard and brittle and 
may snap). Make the cHp a very close push-on fit for 
the pole ends, and then file to about | in. width, as shown, 
so that, when pushed on as far as 
the slant of the limbs permits, the 
upper edge of the brass ex; ends 
about ^ in. beyond the pole-faces. 
Now drill two ^-in. holes through 
the clips a shade more than | in. 
apart. 

Obtain from any ironmonger a 
piece of ^-in. " nail-rod," which 
is ordinary wrought iron ; better 
qualities of iron such as Bessemer 
or mild steel will not do so well. 
From this, cut off f in. lengths for the pole-extensions 
that are to carry the bobbins (all of which are shown in 
Figs. 2, 3 and 4). File up bright all over, and make all 
exactly of one length with the ends perfectly flat. Fit 
these pole pieces into the holes in the brass clips, very 
tightly and truly upright, with their inner ends very 
slightly projecting through the brass. If they were riveted 
into the brass the iron would be hardened and rendered 
less permeable by the magnet-flux of the magnet, so the 
pole-extensions must be soldered into the holes. If all 
the parts are quite clean and bright and plenty of zinc 

349 




Fig. 4. — Full-size Details 

of Clip, Cores, Bobbins, 

and Magnet-poles 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

chloride soldering fluid (" killed " spirit ; see p. 126) is 
applied, together with a few scraps of solder placed round 
the iron cores, the joints will solder themselves if the brass- 
clip is held in pincers over a gas flame. Get a good run of 
solder round the base of each pole-extension, then cool 
off, quench in water, and wash thoroughly to remove the 
acrid flux. File the pole-ends bright again, carefully 
removing every trace of solder from the two inner end- 
faces, and use every endeavour to make these set flush 
and hard upon the faces of the steel magnet when the 
clip is pushed on as hard as it will go. That is why the iron 
ends must project a trifle through the brass — to make 
certain that they (and not the brass) are pressed hard and 
flat against the magnet. 

It should now be found that most of the magnet's 
attractive force is transferred to the tips of the two iron 
extensions \ which is as it should be. 

The bobbins are made up of glued paper tubes with 
wooden or cardboard ends glued on. Cut off a piece of 
the ^-in. iron rod about 2 in. long and file it bright and 
smooth. This makes a mandrel, or former, on which to 
roll a paper cylinder long enough to cut into two bobbin 
tubes. Cut a strip of medium notepaper about 1| in. 
wide by If in. long ; roll this lengthwise round the mandrel, 
which it will be found to lap about three times. Unroll, 
mark the line of the first overlap and dress the remainder 
of the strip with thin hot glue ; roll up tightly and com- 
press by rolling on a flat surface under a piece of smooth 
board with considerable pressure. When consolidated 
the tube can be slipped off the mandrel and dried. Cut 
out two discs for each bobbin | in. in diameter, the central 

3SO 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

holes being a snug fit for the tube ends. Put the tube on 
the mandrel, cut it in two, midway, with a sharp knife, 
glue the discs on the tubes square and true to measure 
I in, long over all exactly. Put aside for at least twelve 
hours to harden, slip on to the mandrel again, trim off 
the tube ends flush with the discs, glasspaper smooth all 
over, and place in a cool oven for half an hour. 

Meanwhile, melt some paraffin wax (paraffin candle 
ends will do) in a gallipot stood in the oven. {Do not 
overheat the wax). When this has melted and the bobbins 
are quite dry and warm, soak them for a few minutes in 
the wax, then drain, cool them off and polish with a dry 
cloth. 

When the bobbins are in position on the pole-exten- 
sions and the brass clip l is pressed on to the magnet- 
limbs, and the magnet is laid fiat upon the back of the 
wooden body a, the bobbins should pass easily through 
the ^-in. twin holes bored to receive them, and the end- 
faces of the pole-extensions should be exactly level with 
the face of the disc b, as clearly shown in Fig. 2. The 
magnet m is secured to the body a by one mushroom- 
head brass wood-screw passing through the brass plate n. 
The triangular-shaped brass plate p is screwed to the 
body as shown simply to prevent the pole-clip l from 
slipping off the slanting poles of the magnet, as otherwise 
it might be prone to do if the combination is roughly 
handled in use. 

Obtain from any photographic stores a sheet oi ferro- 
type plate (which is thin Swedish iron sheet coated on 
both sides with an elastic black enamel). Take a pair of 
compasses and draw a 2-in. diameter circle on a sheet of 

351 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

paper. Cut this out and gum it lightly to the ferrotype 
sheet. Cut the ferrotype to match the pattern, then 
soak off the paper and dry the enamelled disc. (Scissors 
cut ferrotype very easily.) Compasses must not be used 
to mark the disc direct because their centre-point would 
dent or perforate the thin iron, whereas the disc must be 
kept perfectly plain and flat. If, now, this iron disc 
were laid on the surface of b it would, of course, touch 
and cling to the magnetised pole-ends ; it must, therefore 
be raised off the surface of b sufficiently to give it joom 
to vibrate freely (like a drum-head) notwithstanding the 
strong pull of the magnet-poles. But the air-space 
separating the disc from the poles must be the least 
possible that will just keep them from mutual contact. 
This necessary spacing is effected by a ring or washer of 
thin card gummed to the face of b ; the washer may be 
of the same diameter as b (say 2| in.), and If in. inner 
diameter (which will make it ^ in. wide). The pull of 
the magnet will bulge inward the elastic iron-disc (or 
diaphragm, as it must now be called) somewhat, but it 
must not touch the poles. When testing, press the 
middle of the disc gently with the finger-tip ; it should 
touch the poles and be felt to cling to them on very light 
pressure, but be released promptly when the finger is 
removed. If one thickness of card does not suffice, gum 
a thin paper washer over the cardboard one ; or if the 
card seems too stout reduce its thickness by glasspaper- 
ing. The diaphragm is fixed by laying another (and 
thicker) cardboard (or rubber) ring upon it and then 
pressing on the tinplate cover tightly. The whole ar- 
rangement is clearly seen in Fig. 2, which shows the 

352 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

diaphragm d nipped between the washers w and w^, but 
to make the drawing clear both the diaphragm d and the 
thin inner washer w^ are shown much thicker than 
they are in practice. 

The aperture d in the centre of the cover is | in. in 
diameter, it can be cut out very neatly with a centrebit 
of that size, without damaging the tool. Three small 
equi- spaced holes should be drilled in the rim of the cover 
to take three small upholstery brass pins for securing the 
cover to the woodwork when all is finished and the covers 
finally pressed home. 

Having carefully fitted the diaphragm and the magnet 
M by its two brass plates n and p, all must be taken apart 
again, temporarily, for the winding of the bobbins with 
insulated wire. But before this is done the transmitter 
claims attention. Although the transmitter unit (en- 
closed in the wood disc c below) is contrived in so simple 
a way, it is in all respects a reliable instrument of the 
Hunnings-Deckert granular type in modern use. 

The solid carbon block k, shown black, may be a 1 in. 
square cutting from a broken battery carbon plate { in. 
thick, with its angles removed by rubbing down on a 
grit-stone doorstep or in a household sink of that material. 
The rounding off of this block in this way may be rather 
black and dirty work, but it is soon done, particularly if 
plenty of water and some sharp sand are used to hasten the 
grinding. The use of a grindstone much speeds up this 
uncongenial job. The rounded block should be made a 
push-in fit for the 1 in. hole in c ; if one of its faces can be 
roughened by a number of parallel grooves scored across 
the disc at right angles with each other, latticewise, 
X 353 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

using an old rasp, file or saw-blade for the job, so much 
the better ; but this is not absolutely necessary. When 
finished, wash the block free from grit and dry it off 
thoroughly by heating strongly in the oven. 

Cut a 1 in. disc of tinplate or sheet brass, solder a length 
of covered copper wire to its centre, wash, dry, polish and 
then pass the wire end through the central hole and push 
the metal disc to the bottom of the 1 in. cavity in c {see 
Figs. 2 and 3). This is for the smooth side of the carbon 
block K to bed upon, but to improve the electrical connec- 
tion between the carbon and metal discs a pad made up 
of several discs of tinfoil should be compressed between 
them. Take the carbon block hot from the oven and 
melt some pitch, marine glue or sealing-wax around its 
rim (but not on its face or back) ; then quickly force the 
hot carbon into the cavity, bedding it firmly on the tinfoil 
and sheet metal discs and maintaining it under heavy 
pressure until cold. A cardboard washer w^ is next 
gummed to the face of c, just as was done in the case of 
B (the receiver), but this inner washer of the transmitter 
must be considerably thicker ; about -| in. or a little less. 
The transmitter-diaphragm rf is a 2 in. diameter disc of 
very thin carbon, which costs a few pence at any electrical 
stores ; it is extremely delicate and brittle, and must be 
handled daintily. 

The space between the carbon disc d and the block k 
is loosely packed with small dustless fragments of granular 
carbon. This may be ground up from scrap, carefully 
screened to size and sifted free of dust, but the specially 
prepared article costs only a few pence per ounce (1 oz. 
will be sulilcient lor two instruments), and this had better 

354 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

be purchased along with the diaphragms. To confine 
the granules to the central areas of the disc and block a 
circular bedding of soft cotton wool must be lightly dis- 
posed over the face of c, within the washer w^ and ex- 
tending inwards over the brim of the block-aperture, as 
suggested by waved lines in Fig. 2, making a soft and 
yielding nest, as it were, for the granules to lie in. The 
delicate carbon disc d, when placed on the washer w, 
should press down and gently confine the boundaries of 
this wool nest, but it should bed firmly on the washer, 
also, and the wool should not be so dense as to endanger 
the carbon by any excessive strain. 

The outer washer w may be of cardboard or it may be 
a stout rubber ring. In either case, this washer must be 
entirely enclosed in a covering of tinfoil. This is best 
applied in very narrow strips wound over and under all 
round the ring with the strip edges overlapping ; a mere 
touch of gum may be used to secure this foil binding, here 
and there ; but not too much, or the conductivity of the 
metal sheathing will be lessened. 

So much for the outer washer w, but before the parts 
are assembled, the face of the inner washer w^ must also 
be foil-coated. A plain washer of tinfoil gummed on will 
do in this case, but it should be rather larger in diameter 
than w^ (say 2 J in.), so that its margins will be compressed 
into close metallic contact with the tinplate cover of the 
transmitter when the latter is pushed on. Thus the carbon 
disc d will be in good electrical connection with the outer 
cover when nipped between the foiled washers w and w^, 
and when all parts are in position the two wires passing 
out to the back of the body will complete an electrical 

355 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

circuit through the block k, the nested granules, and the 
carbon disc d. 

The central hole in the transmitter cover is fitted 
with a cone of tinplate soldered on skewwise to form a 
mouthpiece, and requires no further explanation. 

To assemble, the granules are lightly strewn over the 
roughened surface of k, within the wool nest, and the disc 
d placed over them and gently pressed down. The disc 
should slightly confine the grains, but it should bed on 
the washer w firmly. Several tests must be made (when 
all is finished) before the best quantity of grains for clear 
speaking can be decided, and then the covers can be finally 
pushed on and secured permanently by the three brass 
pins around the rim. 

Winding the receiver bobbins is a delicate job, but 
perfectly simple if the utmost care be exercised. No 
attempt should be made to wind by hand as it would 
prove a waste of time and fruitful source of failure through 
the tangling and snapping of the very fine-gauge wire 
necessarily employed (No. 36 gauge). You must, there- 
fore, knock up the little wooden windlass shown at Fig. 5a 
with an axle ^ in. in diameter to fit the bobbin-bores 
moderately stiffly; clamp this to the edge of the work 
bench and mount the store-bobbin of insulated wire on a 
bent wire " horse," as in Fig. 5b, driven into the same 
at a convenient point. Turn the crank handle with the 
right hand and guide on the wire with the left. Wind the 
wire quite closely and evenly, as a reel of cotton thread is 
wound ; do not allow spaces to appear between the coils ; 
do not heap up the wire. As each layer is wound on 
saturate it with paraffin wax applied in fragments and 

356 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

melted with the warmed blade of a blunted table-knife, 
palette-knife, or putty-knife. Do not overheat the knife; 
let it be warm enough to melt the wax freely, but not hot 
enough to cause smoking. A very little wax will be found 
sufficient to saturate the covering of the wire (turning it 
to a darker shade of colour). Use no superfluity of wax 
to cause lumps and irregularities. Interleave every 
layer of wire with one lap of thin paper cut in strips the 
exact width of the winding-spaces. Apply the paper to 
the wire-layers (already waxed) by rubbing it down 
gently with the warmed knife. The wax will saturate 




Fig. 5a. — Windlass for 
Winding Bobbins 




Fig. 5b. — Store-reel mounted 
on Wire Horse 



the thin paper, also, when this is done, and it will adhere 
closely and leave a smooth surface for the following layer 
of wire. When the interleaf is taken once round, overlap 
it very slightly (^ in. or so), tear off the surplus of the 
strip, " sleek," down to the seam and proceed patiently 
winding, waxing and interleaving until the bobbin is 
nearly full. 

In Fig. 2, the section shows the wire conventionally 
by latticed lines ; only four layers are indicated, but in 
practice there will be about fifteen layers to build up. 
Every layer should have the same exquisite care bestowed 
on its winding. It is slow and rather monotonous work, 
and to hurry it leads to failure. Great patience must be 

357 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

exercised, for there are several hours of work in each 
bobbin. 

Count the layers of the first bobbin and wind the 
others with the same number. Wind all the bobbins in 
the same direction on the windlass ; then, when the pairs 
are mounted on the cores, it is only necessary to join 
either both the outside ends, or both the inside ends, of the 
windings together to obtain the correct S-wise circulation 
around the cores. (Carefully note this.) The beginning- 
end and the finishing-end of each winding may be passed 
out through holes drilled in the bottom disc to be placed 
nearest the yoke l. Alternatively, the beginning-end of 
the wire may be " cemented " to the inner face of one 
bobbin cheek with wax, and brought out sandwiched 
between it (the bobbin-cheek) and a washer of waxed card 
(the latter being cut through to the central hole to allow 
it to be slipped over the bobbin-tube). The emerging 
inner wire end will thus be insulated from the succeeding 
coils by a waxed cardboard wall. 

When fully wound, the external layer of wire miist be 
enclosed in a protective sheath of two or three laps of 
stout waxed paper well consolidated with the warmed 
knife and smoothed down. 

The bobbins may now be pushed on to the cores, their 
inner winding ends snipped to an equal length, the ends 
freed of insulation, cleaned, twisted together and soldered. 
But note that soldering-fluid must not be used in this 
case ; resin is the only safe flux for soldering electrical 
wires. The two free wire ends should be similarly cleaned 
and prepared for jointing, and then all parts of the hand- 
combination can be put together as in Figs. 2 and 3. The 

358 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

handle connections are clearly shown by the black lines 
in Fig. 3 ; these should be made with fairly stout wire, 
say No. 22 gauge ; they may conveniently be laid in 
grooves cut in the back of the wooden body a. The junc- 
tion of the thin receiver-wires and the stouter ones may 
be made by soldered joints, or by looping the ends of both 
the thin and the thick wires under two brass washers 
secured by mushroom-head screws at a convenient point, 
say just within the loop of the magnet. This is not shown 
in the illustrations, but the current-path is made quite 
clear. 

Starting from the left terminal screw and washer at the 
lowest point of the transmitter (Fig. 3), one conductor 
passes to the receiver-magnet and thence returns to the 
transmitter - casing {see also Fig. 2), whence current 
passes through tinfoiled washers zv and w'^ to carbon 
diaphragm d, the granules (dotted), and the carbon back- 
block k, to the right-hand terminal. (The grooves con- 
taining the conductors can be filled in with shellac applied 
with a heated iron.) One yard of twin-flexible telephone- 
cord must be threaded through the small screw-eye, and 
the bared end of each conductor neatly looped and screwed 
down firmly under the terminals, left and right. This 
completes the hand combination. Its total cost for 
materials should not exceed 2s., or say 50 cents, even at 
war-time prices. The requirements are 1 oz. of No. 36 
gauge silk-covered wire (| oz. on each bobbin) ; carbon 
diaphragm ; 2 in. magnet ; sundries, 4d., or say 8 cents. 

The Wall-Sets. — Fig. 6 shows one of the wall-sets ; 
it is designed to dispense with all ready-made electrical 
parts, and only the wire for the bell-magnet (2 oz. of 

359 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 



No. 26 gauge, silk-covered) need be purchased. The 
gong may be taken from a disused cycle-bell, or an efficient 
substitute can be improvised by use of a wine glass with 
a broken stem (which emits a clear and musical note). 

The magnet m is 
bent up, from a 4-in. 
length of ^-in. common 
wrought - iron " nail- 
rod " and measures 
IJ in. from the curve 
to the pole ends, the 
latter being spaced 
about ^ in. to | in. 
apart. 

The bobbins b are 
1 in. long by f in. in 
diameter, made and 
wound as already de- 
scribed, but with about 
1 oz. each of No. 26 
gauge silk - covered 
wire. 

The armature is a 
piece of strip wrought 
iron about -^ in. to fin. 




Fig. 6. — Details of Complete Wall-set. 
(Scale, 6 in. = 1 ft.) 



wide by -^ in. to A in. thick. The armature-spring a s 
and the contact-spring c s are sheet brass hard-beaten 
with a smooth-face light hammer on the surface of a 
laundry-iron to make the metal springy, then filed and 
glasspapered smooth and thin. (To make the drawing 
clear their thickness is exaggerated.) 

360 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

The bell hammer is a bit of iron or brass rod filed round- 
ended and soldered to a wire shaft, itself soldered into the 
armature ; the spring a 5 is also soldered to the armature. 

These springs are mounted, by one mushroom-head 
brass screw each, on a rectangle of tough hardwood (such 
as oak or beech), which is shown partly shaded. This is 
drilled to receive two other screws (shown dotted), the 
upper one 1 in. long and the lower one | in. long, with 
their extreme points filed flat. These screws adjust the 
stroke of the hammer on the gong ; the upper screw 
advances the armature nearer to the magnet-poles, accord- 
ing to the battery power available ; and the lower one 
advances the contact-spring c s, so regulating the rapidity 
of the hammer strokes. The wooden support of both 
springs is attached to the baseboard by two more mush- 
room-head brass wood-screws, the heads of which are 
shown. Devised especially for this book, this form of 
contact-breaker is really a better arrangement than the 
usual one (requiring finished parts), the contact-point of 
the springs being of the "rubbing" type which is self- 
cleaning and requires no platinum facing. If, however, 
some silver scrap is available it will repay the trouble to 
solder a small cutting of silver to each contact-face. 

The magnet is secured to the baseboard by a screw 
passing through a wooden or metal cross-bar placed across 
the bobbins, as at n (Fig. 2). 

The push and automatic switch-hook movements are 
also of original design ; both are bent up from lengths of 
wire. That for the switchhook may be No. 12 gauge 
hard brass, but the push-spring may be thinner. To 
make them, drive nails or screws into the bench (or an 
X* 361 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

odd piece of board) in the requisite jDositions and bend 
the wires round the patterns (" jigs ") thus improvised. 

For the switch-hook, take about 1 ft. to 15 in. of the 
stouter hard brass wire, bend | in. of one end at right angles 
and drive this into a hole in the bench {see x) about | in. 
distant from the first jig-screw. Twist the wire round 
this, one complete turn {see y), and round the second jig- 
screw f in. farther on, one turn and a quarter {see z). 
Now remove from the bench and bend the wire at right 
angles about | in. distant from the % twist ; and at 3| in. 
from this angle fold the wire closely upon itself {see hook) ; 
and opposite the last right angle, bend once more at right 
angles to form the right-hand |-in. extension shown. 
The doubled portion of the wire may be soldered together 
or not, at option, and when about 1| in. of the doubled 
end is curved forward into a hook of about f in. semi- 
diameter the fitting is complete. It is mounted by driving 
its |-in. spur x into the baseboard and securing eyelet y 
down upon a brass washer by a mushroom-head wood- 
screw. A bone games-counter may be tacked to the 
baseboard under the spring eyelet z and counters (or 
rectangular cuttings from the same) may be drilled to go 
under the (easily driven) staples s, which keep the hook- 
switch in position, but allow it free movement up and 
down between the contact-pegs c and d. For clearness, 
the drawing shows the contact end of the switch midway 
between pegs c and d ; but in practice the spring is given 
a strong bias upward, so that it always presses hard 
against the d peg until the hand-combination telephone 
(Figs. 1, 2 and 3) is suspended on the hook, which removes 
the contact-end from d and carries it to rest firmly on c. 

362 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

The push-spring is on identically the same principle 
as the switch-spring, but simpler and of lighter gauge 
wire ; it is secured by its spur (like x), one screw (like y), 
and a staple (s). Its permanent spring-bias keeps it 
hard against peg a, but when it is pressed to the left {see 
arrow) it makes contact with b. 

The two little double-screwed fittings 4, 4S on the 
left side of the board are connections for the ends of the 
telephone-flexible, and the three terminals, 1, 2 and 3, at 
the top of the board, are mushroom-head wood-screws 
passed through brass washers. All the baseboard con- 
nections should be of No. 22 gauge copper wire laid in 
grooves at the back. They need not follow the routes 
shown by the broken lines, but may take any other direc- 
tion found to be more convenient, provided that they do 
not touch each other at any point or crossing. 

The contact-pegs a, b, c and d may be of stout brass 
wire with a few inches of No. 22 gauge wire soldered into 
small holes drilled in their ends ; alternatively, the wires 
may be soldered to flats filed on the peg-stems. (If all 
the contact points can be sheathed with silver-scraps, 
soldered on, so much the better ; but this is not essential, 
as the parts are easily accessible for cleaning.) The pegs 
being driven partly through the baseboard, their thinner 
wire extensions can be neatly bent down into the grooves, 
previously cut, and either carried along them and through 
small holes to the washers, etc., on the front of the board, 
or, soldered (in the grooves) to the ends of other wires 
brought half-way to meet them. (All joint soldering must 
be done with resin and no other flux.) 

The curved broken lines so clearly indicate the base- 

363 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

board connections that it is necessary only to explain the 
current paths between the two stations when ringing- 
calls are sent or conversation is exchanged. As shown, 
the baseboard measurements are 6| in. by 4 in. ; the com- 
pleted wall-sets should be provided with outer casings of 
thin fretwood or of tinplate mounted on wood fillets, to 
preserve the mechanism from dust and tampering fingers. 
A central orifice backed by a piece of wire gauze will let 
out the sound of the gong. This suggestion is embodied in 
Fig. 7, which shows the external wiring to the batteries 
and lines complete. 

Conclusion. — A complete understanding of the whole 
installation will best be obtained by a systematic trace-out 
of the current paths, to which end Figs. 6 and 7 must be 
studied. Let it be assumed that station a is calling 
station b (Fig. 7). a's push is pressed to the left and 
current from the carbon (-|-) of the A-battery flows by 
terminal 2 {see Fig. 6) to stud h of the push (pressed to the 
left) and through its spring to stud c of the switch (which 
is down because the telephone hangs on the hook) and so 
to screw y and terminal 1. Thence {see Fig. 7) it travels 
by line to terminal 1 of station b and to screw y {see Fig. 
6) and the switch-hook {down), stud c, the press-spring 
(biased to the right) and stud a, through the magnet- 
coils B, springs a s and c s (ringing the bell) to terminal 3 
and back to the zinc (— ) (Fig. 7) of the sending-battery 
at the A station, by the return line. Thus a can call up 
B, and B can call up a similarly, a and b now lift their 
telephones from the hooks, and the switch springs rise 
breaking contact with studs c, and making contact with 
studs d. Current now passes continuously through both 

364 



A Practical Home-made Telephone 

telephones and both batteries in series, and the bell- 
circuits are cut out completely. Starting, say, from + of 
the A battery (Fig. 7), current flows by terminal 2 to con- 




/i 77e 



7*&tu 7*77 




Fig. 7. — System of Connections 

or External Wiring for the 

Telephone Installation 



nection t {see Fig. 6) and by one conductor of the twin- 
flexible through the transmitter and receiver of the hand- 
telephone {see Figs. 1, 2 and 3) and back by the other 
conductor of the flexible to connection t^ (Fig. 6), to 
stud d, the switch {up), screw y, to terminal 1 and thence 
by line to terminal 1 of station b (Fig. 7) to screw y (Fig. 

365 



Every Boy His Own Mechanic 

6), the switch hook (up), stud d, connection t^, the tele- 
phone, connection t, and terminal 2. Then down to the 
zinc (— ) of the b battery (Fig. 7) through it to +, and 
(reinforced in power) back by the return line to the zinc (— ) 
of the A-battery from which this series-trace commenced. 
Well, there you are, dear fellows ; the simplest tele- 
phone in the world has been designed and described for 
you. Simple though it be, and within reach of the shallow- 
est purse, it is no toy or makeshift, but the real thing, 
capable of conveying clearly and reliably the most im- 
portant conversation that ever passed over wires between 
the two " biggest pots " on earth. Listen ! The writer 
hails you — " Are you there ? " — " Au revoir ! " 



366 



INDEX 



Accumulators, 41-43 
Aeroplane, Model, 319-377 

, Toy, 143-147 

Aluminium, 80 
Aluminium Bronze, 80 

, Soldering, 80 

Amalgamating: Battery Zincs. 112, 

121 
Amperes, 43 
Aniline Stains, 158 
Annealing Steel, 11 
Applique, Fretwork, 171 
Aqua Regia, 79 
Aquarium Cements, 38, 39 
Archimidean Drills, 165 
Ash, 342 

B 

Batteries, Dry, 49, 50 

, Making, 111-124 

, Position of, 50 

, Primary, 41-43, 45 

, Renewing, 59 

, Secondary, or Accumulators, 

41-43 
Battery Zincs, Amalgamating, 112, 

121 
Bearers, Shelf, Erecting, 330-332 
Bearings (see " Bicycle Bearings ") 
Beech, 342 
Bell (see Electric) 
Bench, Pretworker's, 164 

Hook, 13 

, Kitchen Table as, 1-4 

, Metalworker's, 94 

Screws and Their Fixing, 2-4 

, Woodworker's, 1-6 

Bevel, Sliding, 9 

Bichromate Battery, 117 

Bicycle Bearings, Adjusting, 177-178 

, Cleaning, 177 

: Renewing Balls, etc., 177- 

179 

Bottom Bracket, Taking Apart, 

178 

Chain, Adjusting, 184 

, Cleaning and Lubricating. 

179 

, Effect of Worn, 180 

in Gear-case. 180 

, Removing, 179 

" Chain Line," 182 

Coaster Hub, Cleaning, 183 

Cotters, Removing, 178 

Covers, Removing, 185, 186 

, Repairing. 188 

, Replacing, 189 



Bicycle Cranks, Removing, 178 

Frame. Cleaning, 1Z6 

. Enamelling. 176, 177 

: Frame Size, 182 

Free-wheel Clutches, Cleaning, 

, Renovating, 183 

, " Gear " of, 174, 175 

, Parts of, 172-174 

Pedals, Removing, 182 

' Plated Parts, Renovating, Lac- 
quering and Protecting, 184, 
185 

Spokes : Adjusting Tension, 181 

"Tread," 182 

Tubes, Patching, 186-188 

, Testing, for Punctures, 186, 

188 

Tyre Stopping, 188 

Tyres, Removing, 185, 186 

, Replacing, 189 

Valve, Testing, 183 

Variable-gear, 175 

" Wheel Base." 182 

Wheels Out of Truth, 180-182 

Biscuit Barrel, Cementing Rim on, 35 
Bit, Soldering, 127 

, , Heating. 128, 129 

, , Tinning, 130 

Blowpipe Flame, 133. 134 

Moulds, 309, 313-315 

Soldering, 134 

, Lamp for, 134 

Boat, 10-ft Flat-bottomed Rowing, 
307-319 

Bottom Planking, 314. 315 

Chines, 314 

Fittings, 318 

■ Floor, 316 

Keel Piece, 315 

Moulds, 309, 313-315 

, Painting, etc., 318 

Seams, Caulking, 317. 318 

Seats and Supports, 316, 317 

Side Planking, 311-313 

, Bending, 313 

Rubbing Pieces, 315, 316 

Stems or Stemposts, 310 

Uprights, 314 

Boiler, Model, Silver-soldering, 135- 
137 

of Model Locomotive, 214 

Bow-saw, Using, 275 

Brace, 7 

Brackets, Enlarging Screw Holes in, 

334 
Bradawl, 9 
Brass, 76 

Broach or Reamer, 104, 334 
Bronze, 76 



367 



Index 



Bronze, Special, 76, 80 
Brushes, Glue, 106 
— . Paint, 153, 154 
Bunsen Battery, 116 



Calipers, 224 

, Using, on Lathe Work, 224 

Candle-power, Electric, 44 
Canvas, Waterproofing, 268 
Carrier, Lathe, 283 
Caulking Boat Seams, 317, 318 
Cells (see Batteries) 
Celluloid, Cementing. 36-38 
, Dissolving, 36, 37 

Films, Repairing, 37, 38 

Lacq^uer, 185 

, Testing, 36 

Cement, Portland, Using, 40 

: Rubber Solution, 187 

, Water-glass, 38 

Cementing Aquariam, 38, 39 

Celluloid, 36-38 

China, 38, 39 

Cinematograph Films, 37, 38 

Glass, 38, 39 

Rims on Various Vessels, 35 

Tyres on Rims, 39 

Xylonite, 36 

Centre Bit, 9 

Chain (see Bicycle Chain) 
China, Cementing, 38 
Chisels and Their Use. 27-33 

, Metalworker's, 101 

, Sharpening, 19-22, 28, 29 

, Woodturner's, and How to Use 

Them, 221, 225. 226 
Chucks, Metal-turning, 282 

, Prong, 222, 223 

, Screw, 227-229 

Compasses^ Wing. 9 
Concrete Floor, 40 
Copper, 78 

Cotters, Removing. 178 
Cramp, 5-7 

for Picture Frames, 89 

, Rope, 108 

, Wedge, 108 

Cutting-board, Fretworker's, 164 
Cycle (see Bicycle) 



Daniell Battery, 117 

Designs, Applying, 286 

, Fretwork. 163, 166. 167. 158. 170 

Picture-frame, 85. 88, 90 

, Reversing, 286 

, Transferring, 168 

Dog Kennel Built in Sections, 289- 
297 

, Lathe. 283 

Dory, Boat Adapted from, 309 
Dovetail Angle, 271, 272 

, Box or Common, 276-280 

, Half-lap, 270-275 

, Single, 270-275 

Templates, 271, 278 

Dowel, 139 



Draw-boring, 202, 203 

Draw-filing, 97, 98 

Drill, Archimidean, 103, 165 

, Flat or Diamond-point, 102 

. Hand, 7 

, Metalworker's, 102 

, Straight-fluted, 103 

, Twist, 102 

Dry Batteries, 121-124 



Electric Batteries, Making, 111-124 
(see also Batteries, Bichro- 
mate, Bunsen, Flash-lamp, 
Leclanche, ■ Wollaston, etc.) 

Bell Circuits, 45, 46, 50, 54-56 

Faults, 68 

: How It Works, 51 

Wire and Wiring, 50, 61-64 

Circuits, " Earthed," 56, 57 

. Gas-pipes included in, 56, 

57 

Connections : Parallel, 48, 55 

: Series, 47, 48 

: Series-parallel, 48, 49 

Lamp, 44 

Wire and Wiring, 50, 61- 

64 

Circuits, 45, 46, 50, 54-56 

Lampholder, Construction of, 59 

. Wiring-up, 59 

Light Batteries, 41-43 

Push. 52 

Signalling System. 56 

Switches, 53, 54 

Twin-flexible Cable, 58, 60. 62 

Wires. 50, 61-64 

, Clipping, to Pipes. 63 

. Jointing, 57 

. Screw-eyes for. 63 

, Staples for. 62 

Electrical Terms : Amperes. 43 

: Candle-power, 44 

: Ohms, 43 

: Volts, 43 

: Watts, 44 

Ellipse, Setting-out, 234, 235 
Elm, 342 

Enamel, Cycle, 176 

Paint, 156 

, " Flat " and Glossy. 157 

Undercoating. 157 

Enamelling, 156-158 

Bicycle Frame, 176, 177 

, Brushes for, 157 

Engravings, Mounting, 231 



Ferret Hutch, 260-262 
Files Becoming Pinned, 76 

. Cutting Glass with, 91 

for Saw-pierced Work, 288 

, Grades of, 97 

, Hardening, 91 

. New. Using, 78 

, Single-cut and Double-cut, 98 

, Swiss, 97, 98 

, Various Shapes of, 96, 97 



368 



Index 



Filing, 98, 99 

, Draw, 97, 98 

Flash-lamp Batteries, 121-124 
Floor, Concrete, 40 

Staining. 160 

Flour Paste, Making, 231 
Flux, Soldering, 126, 127. 135 
Fox-wedging, 201 

Fuming Oak, 159, 160 

Frame (see also Picture Frame) 

, Glazing, 70-73 

, Three Sizes of, 71 

Free-wheel, Cleaning, etc., 183 
French Bunsen Battery, 112 
Fretsaw Frames and Blades, 162, 164 

, Metalworker's, 285 

, Using, 168, 169 

, Wood and Metal, 285 

Pretwood, 166, 167 

Fretwork Cutting Board, 164 

Designs, 163, 166, 167 

, Laying Down and Trans- 
ferrins'. 168 

Drill, 165 

, Finishing, 170 

, Glasspapering, 165, 166 

in Metal and Ivory, 285-288 (for 

details, see Saw-piercing) 

Marquetry, 169, 170 

Overlays and Applique, 169-171 

Table or Bench, 164 

in Wood, 161-171 



Graver, Metal turner's, 281 
Grenefs Flash Battery, 117 
Ground-sheets, Waterproofing, 268 
Gunmetal, 76 
Gynast, Toy, 138-143 

H 

Hack Knife, 70 

Saw Frames and Bla4es, 95-97 

, Using, 96 

Halved Joint, Making, 13, 30-32 
Hammers, Metalworker's, 100 

, Wedging Heads on Shafts, 100 

, Woodworker's, 7, 100 

Hand-combination (see Telephone) 

Hand-drill, 7 

Handscrew, Wooden, 7 

Hard Soldering, 135-137 

Hardening and Tempering, 76, 91, 

100 
Hektograph, Making, 65, 66 

Ink, 67 

— , Putty, 68, 69 

Tray, 66, 67 

— , Using, 67, 68 

Holes, Enlarging, in Brackets, etc., 

334 
Hook, Bench, 13 
Hutch, Ferret, 260-262 
, Rabbit, 255-260 



Garments, Waterproofing, 268 
Gauge, Marking, 9 

, Rail, 305 

Gilder's Cushion, 190 

Knife, 190 

Oil Gold Size, 191 

Tip, 190 

Gilding with Gold Leaf, 190 

Gimlet, 9 

Glass, Cementing, 39 

, Cleaning, 92 

, Cutting, 91 

Pane, Inserting, 70-73 

Plates or Hangers, 334 

, Qualities and Weights of, 72 

Silvering, 263. 267 

Glasspapering Fretwork, 165, 166 
Glue, Liquid, 110 

, Preparing, 105, 106 

, Seccotine, 109 

, Waterproof, 109, 110 

Gluing Joints. 107 

Picture Frames, 89, 90 

Gluepots and Brushes, 105, 106 
Gold, 81 

Leaf, 190 

, Gilding with, 190-192 

, Transfer, 192 

Lines on Mounts, 235, 236 

Paint. 192, 193 

- Medium, 192, 193 

Gtold-bronze, 192, 193 
Gouges, Sharpening, 22, 23 

, Woodturner's, and How to Use 

Them, 221-225 



Ink, Hektograph, 67 

Inkstand, Cementing Rim on, 35 

Iron. Cast. 74, 75 

, Wrought, 75, 76 

Ivory, Distinguishing, from Cellu- 
loid, 36 



Joint, Dovetail, 270-280 

, Halved, 13, 30-32 

, Mortise-and-tenon, 194-203 

, Pinned, 202, 203 

. Wedged, 200-202 



Kennel Built in Sections, 289-297 
Kldd, Mr. D : Design for Boat, 307 
Killed Spirit, Preparing, 126 
Knife, Gilder's, 191 

. Hack, 70 

, Mount-cutter's, 223 

, Putty, 70 



Lacquer, Celluloid, 185 
Lacquering Cycle Parts. 184, 185 
Lamp (see also Electric) 

for Soldering. 134 

Reservoir, Cementing Rim on, 

36 
Larch, 342 
Lathe (see also Metal-turning and 

Wood-turning) 



369 



Index 



Lathe, CJomponent Parts of Simple, 
219-221 

Dog or Carrier, 283 

Tools, 221 

Lead, 79 

Leclanch6 Battery, 111 

, Charging, 111, 115 

, Sack. 112-115 

Zincs, Amalgamating, 112, 

121 

Lighting (see Electric) 

Liquid Glue, 110 

Locks, Cleaning, 334, 355 

, Renewing Springs of, 336 

Locomotive Bogie, 213, 214 

Boiler, 214 

Boiler-bands, 217 

Buffers and Hooks, 217 

, Cardboard Model, 204-218 

Coupled Wheels, 213 

Coupling-rods, 217 

Dome, 215 

Funnel, 215 

Hand-rails, 217 

Main Frames, 211 

, Model : Gauges and Scales, 206- 

208 
, Procedure in Making, 217 

Tender, 216 

Wheel Arrangement, 204, 206 

Wheels, 210 



M 

Mahogany, 342 

Stain, 159 

Maple, 342 

Marking Awl and Knife, 9 

Gauge. 9 

, Using, 276 

Marquetry, 169, 170 
Metals, 74-81 
Metal-turning, 281-284 

: Bar or Spindle, 282-284 

Chucks, 282 

, Graver for, 281 

Rest, 282 

Tools, 281 

Methylated Spirit, 158 

Microscope Speculum, Silvering, 263- 

267 
Mirror Making, 263-267 
Mitre-block, 84 
Mitre-box, 83 
Mitre-shoot, 86-88 
Mitre-trimmer, 89 
Model Aeroplane, 319-327 

Locomotive Gauges and Scales, 

206-208, 298, 299 

. Making. 204-218 {for details, 

see Locomotive) 

Railway : Laying the Rails, 

298-306 
Monoplane, Model, 319-327 
Mortar, Cement, 40 
Mortise-and-tenon Joints, 194-203 
Mortise, Closed, 198-200 

, Open, 194-198 

Moulding Machine, Spindle, 82 
Moulds, Boat, 309, 313-315 



Mount Cutter's Knife, 233 

Cutting, 233, 234 

, Gold Lines on, 235, 236 

, Oval, 234, 235 

, White Lines on, 235, 236 

Mounting Pictures, 231-233 

N 

Nails, 328 

, Inserting, 328, 329 

in Walls, 330 

, Wire, 328 



Oak, 342 

, Fuming, 150 

— - Stain, 159 

Ohms, 43 

Oil, Double-boiled, 268 

Gold Size, 191 

, Waterproofing with, 268. 269 

Oilstones, 20 

Oval, Setting Out, 234. 235 

Overlays, Fretwork, 169 



Packing-cases Made into Hutches, 

255-260 
Paillons of Solder, 135 
Paint Brushes, 153, 154, 157 

, Buying, 154, 155 

, Composition of, 155 

, Enamel, 156 

, (Jold-bronze, 192, 193 

Painting, 153-156 

: Stopping, 156 

Pane of Glass, Inserting, 70-73 

Panel Pins, 328 

" Parallel " Electric Connections, 48, 

56 
Parting Tool, 227 
Paste, Flour, Making, 231 

for Metal, 285, 286 

Patterns (see Design) 

Pedals, Bicycle, Removing, 182 

Pen. Ruling. 236 

Pepperpot, Cementing Rim on, 35 

Phosphor-bronze, 76 

Picture Frame Backboard. 92 

, Cramping, 89, 90 

Designs. Various. 86. 88, 90 

, Estimating and Cutting 

up Material for, 84, 85 

, Finishing, 92, 93 

, Fitting Up, 90-93 

Glass, Cutting, 91 

, Size of, 72 

, Gluing Up, 89, 90 

Making, 82-90 

Mitres, Cutting, 86 

. Shooting, 86-89 

, Strengthening, 90 

Mouldings, 82, 83 

g, — , Three Sizes of, 84 

, Tools, etc., for Making, 83, 

84 

Pictures, Mounting, 231-233 



370 



Index 



Pincers, 9 

Pine, 342 

Pinned Woodwork Joints, 202, 203 

Pins, Panel, 328 

Plane, Action of, 18 

Iron or Cutter, 17 

, Sharpening, 19-22 

, Jack, Using, 24. 25 

, Kinds of, 15 

, Putting Together, 23 

, Smoothing, Using, 25, 26 

, Taking Apart, 15-18 

Platinum, 81 

Plating, Battery for, 115-118 

Plugging Walls, 330, 331 

Points, Model Railway, 303-306 

Polishing Work in Lathe, 226, 227 

Portland Cement, Using, 40 

" Pouncing " Designs, 286, 287 

Prints, Mounting, 231, 232 

Prong Chuck and How to Use It, 

222 223 
Propeller,' Model Aeroplane, 320, 322 
Pushes, 52, 362 
Putty Hektograph, 68, 69 

Knife, 70 

, Removing Old, 70 

Stopping, 156 



Rabbit Hutch, 255-260 

Rails : " Between - tyre - dimensions," 

299. 304 

: Frogs, 303-306 

, Gauge for, 305 

, Laying, for Model Railway, 298- 

306 

, Materials for, 301 

: Points, 303-306 

: Setting Out Curves and Points, 

304 

, Sleepers for, 302 

, Wing and Check, 303 

Railway (Model) Gauges and Wheel 

Dimensions, 206-208, 298, 299 
Reamer, 104, 334 
Rowing Boat, 307-319 [for (UtnUs, 

see Boat) 
Rubber Solution, 187 
Ruling Pen, 236 



Sal-ammoniac Block, 130 

Sash, Window, Loosening Stuck, 339 

Saw, Fret. 162, 164, 285 

, Hack, 95-97 

, , Using, 96 

. Hand, and How to Use It, 8-12 

, Tenon, and How to Use it. 8, 

12-14 

, Various Kinds of, 7. 9 

Sawing, 8-14 

in the Waste, 14 

, Rip, 11 

Saw-piercing : Applying Design, 286 

: Files, 288 

: Finishing. 288 

: Metal, 285-288 



Saw-piercing : Paste, 285, 286 

:" Pouncing," 286, 287 

: Saws and Frame, 285 

: Working the Saw, 287 

Scrapers, Metalworker's. 99 

, Using, 100 

, Woodworker's, Sharpening and 

Using, 26, 27 
Screw Chuck, 227-229 
Screws, 328 

, Bench, and Tlieir Fixing, 2-4 

, Damaged, Removing, 33 

, Rusted-in, Removing, 34 

Screwdrivers, Selection and Use of, 

9, 33, 34 
Screw-eyes for Electric Wires, 63 
" Series " Connections, 47, 48 
" Series-parallel " Electric Connec- 
tions, 48, 49 
Shelf, Erecting, 330-334 
Shooting Board, Mitre, 86-88 

Edges, 276 

Silver, 80, 81 

, Saw-piercing, 288 

Soldering, 135-137 

Silvering Glass, 263-267 
Sleepers, Model Railway, 302 
Sliding Bevel, 9 

Solder, Silver, 135 

, , Cutting Up, 135 

, Soft. 125, 126 

, Tinman's, 125, 126 

: " Tinol " or " Bri-tinol," 126 

Soldering, 125-137 

Aliiminium, 80 

Bits, 127 

. Heating, 128, 129 

, Tinning, 130 

, Blowpipe, 133, 134 

, , Spirit Lamp for, 134 

Electrical Wires, 57 

Flux, 126, 127 

:"Fluxite," 127 

, Hard, 135-137 

"Iron," 125, 127 

-: "Killed Spirit," 126 

: Necessity of Clean Surfaces, 

129, 130 

Patch on Vessel, 131 

. Silver, 135-137 

, , Flux for, 135 

, , Outfit for, 136 

, : Pickle, 136 

, Soft, 125-134 

: "Sweating," 132 

Solutions, " Saturated," 35 
Speculum, Silvering, 263, 267 
Spindle Moulding Machine, 48 
Spirit Lamp for Soldering, 134 

, Methylated, 158 

Spokeshave, 7 

Springs, Lock, Renewing, 336 

Spruce, 342 

Stain and Varnish Combined, 160 

Stains, Aniline, 158, 159 

, Various, 159 

Staining, 158-160 

Floors, 160 

: Fuming. 159, 160 

Staples for Electric Wires, 62 



371 



Index 



steel. Annealing. 77 

, Blister. 77 

. Cast. 76-78 

, Hardening, 76 

, Mild. 76 

, Tempering, 76 

. Tool, 76-78 

Stopping. Painter's. 156 

, Tyre, 188 

Sweating a Soldered Patch, 132 
Switch-hook, Telephone. 362 
Switches, 53, 54 



Table Adapted as Bench, 1-4 

, Fretworker's, 164 

"Tank." Toy, 147-152 

Tap, Renewing Washer in, 337-339 

Tapers, Turning, 229, 230 

Teak, 342 

Telephones, Hand-combination, with 
Two Series-type Wall Sets, 
How u) Make, 343-366 

Telescope Speculum, Silvering, 263- 
267 

Tent Canvas, Waterproofing, 268 

Tin and Tinning, 79 

Tinplate. 79 

Tool Handle, Turning, 221-227 

Sets, 6 

Tools. Fretworker's, 162-166, 285 

, Metalworker's. 94-104 

, Woodworker's, 6, 7, 9 

Toy Aeroplane, 143-147 

Gymnast, 138-143 

"Tank," 147-152 

Trammel. Using, 304 
Transmitter, Telephone, 353-357 
Try-sqnare. 9 

Tube, Silver-Boldering. 135-137 
Turning (see Metal-turning and 

Wood-turning) 
Tyre. Cementing, to Rim, 39, 40 

Removing and Replacing, 185, 

186, 189 

Repairing, 186-188 

Stopping, 188 

Twist Bit. 9 

Drill. 102 



Vertical Spindle Machine. 82 
Vice. Metalworker's. 94 

. Woodworker's. 2-4 

Volts, 43 

W 

Walls. Nails in. 330 
, Plugging, 330, 331 



— ', We 
, Tu 



Walnu.t, 342 

Stain, 159 

Washers, Tap, Renewing, 337-339 
Water-glass Cements, 38 
Waterproofing with Oil. 268. 269 

Soap, 269 

Watts 44 

Wedging Woodwork Joints, 200-202 

Wheel Rims, Cementing Solid Tyres 

to, 39, 40 
White Lines on Picture Mounts, 235, 

236 
Window Pane, Inserting, 70-73 

Sash, Loosening Stuck, 339 

Wollaston Battery, 118 
Wood, 340-342 

, Buying, 341 

. Fret, 166, 167 

-, Two-ply, Three-ply, etc.. 167, 340 
Tarping of, 340, 341 
[burner's, 229 

, Various, 343 

Wood-turning : Centering Work, 222 

: Chucking Work, 222. 223 

: Face-plate Work, 228 

Lathe. 219-221 

: Polishing Work, 226. 227 

— — , Prong or Horn Chuck for, 222 
— : Screw Chuck Work. 227-229 

: Tapers. 229, 230 

: Tool Handle. 221-227 

, Tools for. 221 

Using Callipers. 224 

Chisel. 225, 226 

Gouge, 223, 224 

Parting-tool. 227 

Various Examples, Z27, 228 

, Woods for, 229 

Woodworking : Bench. 1-6 

: Chisels and Their Use. 27-33 

: Draw-boring. 202, 203 

: Halved Joints, 13, 30-32 

: Mortise-and-tenon Joints. 194- 

203 

: Nails and Screws. 328 

: Pinned Joints, 202, 203 

: Planes and Planing, 15-26 

: Saws and Sawing. 8-15 

: Sharpening Edge Tools, 19-22, 

28, 29 

: Tools, 6, 7, 9 

: Wedged Joints, 200-202 



Xylonite (see Celluloid) 



Zinc, 79, 80 

, Amalgamating, 112, 121 



Printed by Cassell & Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, London, E.C.4 

50.219 



